UNIVERSITY    OF   CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL 

BY 

J.  ELIOT  COIT  AND  WALTER  E.  PACKARD 


BULLETIN  No.  210 

(Berkeley,  Cal.,  January,  1911) 


BERKELEY 

THE   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 
1911 


Benj.  Ide  Wheeler,   Ph.D.,   LL.D.,   President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT   STATION   STAFF. 

E.  J.  Wickson,  M.A.,  Director  and  Horticulturist. 

E.  W.  Hilgard,   Ph.D.,   LL.D.,   Chemist    (Emeritus). 

W.  A.  Setchell,  Ph.D.,   Botanist. 

Elwood  Mead,  M.S.,   C.E.,   Irrigation  Engineer.      (Absent  on  leave.) 

Lerov  Anderson,  Ph.D.,  Dairy  Industry  and  Superintendent  University  Farm  Schools. 

M.  E.  Jaffa,  M.S.,  Nutrition  Expert,  in  charge  of  the  Poultry   Station. 

R.  H.  Loughridge,  Ph.D.,   Soil  Chemist  and  Physicist    (Emeritus). 

C.  W.  Woodworth,  M.S.,   Entomologist. 

Ralph  E.  Smith,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist  and  Superintendent  of  Southern  California  Patho- 
logical Laboratory  and  Experiment  Station. 

G.  W.  Shaw,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Experimental  Agronomist  and  Agricultural  Technologist,  in  charge 
of  Cereal   Stations. 

E.  W.  Major,  B.Agr.,  Animal  Industry,  Farm  Manager,  University  Farm,   Davis. 

F.  T.  Bioletti,  B.S.,  Viticulturist. 

George  E.  Colby,  M.S.,  Chemist   (Fruits,  Waters  and  Insecticides),  in  charge  of  Chem.  Lab. 

H.  J.  Quayle,  A.B.,  Assistant  Entomologist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,   Whittier. 

W.  T.  Clarke,  B.S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist  and  Superintendent  of  University  Extension  in 

Agriculture. 
H.  M.  Hall,  Ph.D.,   Assistant  Botanist. 

C.  M.  Haring,  D.V.M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 
John   S.   Burd,   B.S.,   Chemist,   in  charge  of  Fertilizer  Control. 
E.   B.  Babcock,   B.S.,  Assistant  Agricultural  Education. 
H.  A.   Hopper,  M.S. A.,  Dairy  Industry,   University  Farm,   Davis. 
W.  B.  Herms,  M.A.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

J.  H.  Norton,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Citrus  Experiment  Station,  Riverside. 
W.  T.  Horne,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

J.   E.   Coit,  Ph.D.,   Assistant  Pomologist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,   Whittier. 
C.  B.  Lipman,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Bacteriology. 
R.  E.  Mansell,  Assistant  in  Horticulture,  in  charge  of  Central  Station  grounds. 

A.  J.   Gaumnitz,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Investigations,   University  Farm,   Davis. 

E.  H.  Hagemann,  Assistant  in  Dairying,  Davis. 

B.  S.  Brown,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Horticulture,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

F.  D.  Hawk,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Industry. 

J.  I.  Thompson,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Industry,  Davis. 

R.  M.  Roberts,  B.S.A.,  Field  Assistant  in  Viticulture,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

J.  C.   Bridwell,  B.S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

C.  H.  McCharles,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 
J.  C.  Roper,  Patron  University  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 

Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,   Secretary  to  the  Director. 
E.  C.  Miller,  Foreman  University  Forestry  Station,   Chico. 
N.  D.  Ingham,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Sylviculture,  Santa  Monica. 
John  T.  Bearss,  Foreman  Kearney  Park  Station,  Fresno. 

E.  H.  Smith,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 
T.  F.  Hunt,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

C.  O.  Smith,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 
M.  E.  Stover,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 
P.  L.  McCreary,  B.S.,   Laboratory  Assistant  in  Fertilizer  Control. 

F.  L.  Ykaw,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,  Vacaville. 
F.  E.  Johnson,  B.L.,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Laboratory. 
Charles  FUCHS,  Curator  Entomological  Museum. 

P.  L.  Hibbard,  B.S.,  Assistant  Fertilizer  Control  Laboratory. 

W.  H.  Volck,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  Watsonville. 

E.  L.  Morris,  B.S.,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  San  Jose. 

J.  S.  Hunter,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,   San  Mateo. 

L.  M.  Davis,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry,  University  Farm,  Davis. 

L.  Bonnet,   Assistant  in  Viticulture. 

S.  S.  ROGUEBS,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

B.  A.  Madson,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Laboratory. 

Walter  E.  Packard,  M.S.,  Field  Assistant  Imperial  Valley  Investigation,  El  Centre 

E.  E.  Thomas,  B.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction,  139. 

The  Weather  Conditions,  142. 

Soils  of  Imperial  Valley,  147. 

The  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  156. 

Insect  Pests  and  Diseases,  163. 

Varieties  Best  Adapted  to  the  Valley,  164. 

Discussion  of  Crops  arranged  Alphabetically: 

Alfalfa,  165;  Almond,  169;  Apple,  169;  Apricot,  170;  Artichoke,  172;  Aspar- 
agus, 172;  Avocado,  174;  Banana,  174;  Barley,  193;  Beans,  174;  Beets, 
176;  Berseem,  3  77;  Blackberry,  177;  Broom  Corn,  234;  Buckwheat,  177; 
Cabbage,  177;  Cantaloupe,  216;  Carrot,  178;  Cassava,  178;  Castor  Bean, 
178;  Cauliflower,  179;  Celery,  179;  Cherry,  179;  Citron,  179;  Clovers,  180; 
Corn,  180;  Cotton,  181;  Cowpeas,  185;  Cucumber,  185;  Currant,  185; 
Dates,  185;  Dewberry,  188;  Eggplant,  188;  Eucalypts,  189;  Figs,  192; 
Flax,  193;  Gooseberry,  193;  Grains,  193;  Grape,  194;  Grasses,  211;  Guava, 
213;  Hemp,  213;  Jujube,  213;  Kafir  Corn,  234;  Kumquats,  213;  Lemons, 
214;  Lettuce,  215;  Licorice,  215;  Lime,  215;  Loquat,  215;  Mulberries,  215; 
Muskmelon,  216;  Oats,  193;  Olives,  218;  Onion,  221;  Orange,  222;  Peach, 
226;  Peanut,  226;  Pear,  227;  Peas,  228;  Pecan,  228;  Pepper,  228;  Per- 
simmons, 229;  Pineapple,  229;  Plums,  229;  Prunes,  229;  Pomegranate, 
230;  Pomelo,  231;  Potato,  232;  Pumpkin,  232;  Quince,  232;  Eadish,  233; 
Easpberries,  233;  Khubarb,  233;  Eice,  233;  Eoselle,  233;  Salt  Bush,  233; 
Sesbania,  234;  Sorghums,  234;  Spinach,  237;  Squash,  237;  Strawberries, 
237;  Sugar  Cane,  239;  Sweet  Potatoes,  239;  Tobacco,  240;  Tomatoes,  240; 
Turnips,  241 ;  Vetch,  241 ;  Walnuts,  241 ;  Watermelon,  241 ;  Wheat,  193. 

The  Weeds  of  Imperial  Valley,  242 ;  Herbicides,  245. 

Plants  for  Ornament  and  Comfort: 

Lawns,  246 ;  Shade  Trees,  247 ;  Shrubs,  249 ;  Vines,  251 ;  Eoses,  252 ;  Perennial 
Flowers,  253;  Annual  Flowers,  253. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


We  wish  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  the  large  number  of 
residents  of  the  valley  for  their  kindly  co-operation  and  assistance 
and  for  furnishing  much  of  the  data  contained  in  this  publication. 
We  wish  to  especially  thank  Mr.  Francis  Heiny,  Horticultural  Com- 
missioner W.  E.  Wilsie,  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Mr.  N.  D.  Ingham,  Dr. 
C.  B.  Lipman,  Dr.  G.  W.  Shaw,  and  Mr.  H.  G.  Whiting  for  valuable 
suggestions,  proof  reading,  etc. 

Mr.  H.  Egge  of  El  Centro  kindly  furnished  data  in  regard  to  sugar 
beet  tests  made  by  him. 

We  are  especially  indebted  to  Prof.  F.  T.  Bioletti  for  kindly 
consenting  to  write  the  entire  article  on  "Grape  Culture  in  Imperial 
Valley.' ' 


IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL 

BY 

J.  ELIOT   COIT  and  WALTER   E.  PACKARD 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Imperial  Valley  is  indeed  a  new  country,  for  it  has  been  the 
abode  of  man  for  but  little  more  than  ten  years.  In  1900  this  great 
Valley  was  an  uninhabited  solitude  with  scant  vegetation.  Typical 
desert  plant  life  was  fairly  well  distributed  over  the  total  area  but 
the  native  flora  consisted  of  a  remarkably  small  number  of  species. 
The  valley  floor  was  studded  here  and  there  with  clumps  of  the  crea- 
sote  bush  (Larrea  tridentata) ,  the  mesquite  (  Prosopis  juliflora),  and 
shad  scale  (Atriplex  canescens).  On  alkali  spots  the  saltwort  (Sua- 
eda  torreyana)  predominated,  while  along  the  beds  of  dry  water 
courses  the  arrow  weed  (Pluchea  sericea)  and  some  poplars  were  to 
be  found.  The  absence  of  water  and  the  pitiless  sun  made  this  coun- 
try very  difficult  of  exploration  and  it  had  long  been  regarded  by  many 
as  absolutely  worthless.  In  March,  1902,  however,  water  for  irriga- 
tion purposes  was  first  turned  into  the  Valley  from  the  Colorado 
River  and  as  large  numbers  of  hardy  pioneer  settlers  began  to  arrive, 
there  immediately  began  one  of  the  most  rapid  and  altogether  aston- 
ishing transformations  which  has  ever  come  over  a  landscape.  "From 
Desert  to  Garden, "  "  From  Worthlessness  to  Wealth, "  "  A  Submarine 
Empire  Where  the  Mirage  has  been  Materialized, ' ' — these  are  some  of 
the  expressions  used  by  different  men  to  indicate  the  extent  and  qual- 
ity of  the  transformation. 

As  in  other  newly  settled  irrigated  areas,  the  first  crops  grown  were 
those  which  would  yield  a  quick  harvest  and  bring  fair  returns.  Thus 
during  the  first  few  years  the  leading  crops  were  barley,  milo  maize, 
wheat,  kafir  corn,  and  sorghum.  As  soon  as  a  quantity  of  feed  was 
produced  cattle  and  hogs  were  brought  in  and  the  dairy  industry  be- 
gan to  develop.  The  almost  continuous  growth  and  satisfactory  yields 
of  alfalfa  made  it  a  very  popular  crop  and  within  five  years  the  area 
in  alfalfa  increased  to  over  fifty-five  thousand  acres. 


140  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

With  the  completion  of  the  railroad  from  Imperial  Junction  to 
Calexico  on  the  International  line  it  became  practicable  to  raise  more 
perishable  crops  for  shipment  to  eastern  markets.  The  soil  and  cli- 
mate were  found  to  be  well  suited  for  producing  early  cantaloupes. 
At  first  the  profits  were  large  and  the  area  devoted  to  this  crop  in- 
creased rapidly  until  in  1908  nearly  10,000  acres  were  planted.  This 
proved  to  be  too  much  with  the  methods  of  marketing  then  in  vogue 
and  while  a  fine  crop  of  melons  was  produced,  much  money  was  lost. 
Subsequent  crops  being  smaller  in  amount  were  better  handled  and 
have  paid  well. 


Fig.  1. — The  Valley  floor  before  irrigation  began. 

By  the  winter  of  1908  a  large  number  of  different  crops  were  being 
experimented  with  by  various  ranchers  and  it  became  more  and  more 
evident  that  on  account  of  the  fact  that  this  great  inland  valley  pos- 
sessed climatic  and  soil  conditions  unique  in  American  agriculture, 
that  it  was  imperative  that  a  public  experiment  station,  supported  by 
the  state,  be  established  in  the  valley  in  order  that  the  life  history, 
adaptation,  and  methods  of  culture  of  all  crops  might  be  studied  scien- 
tifieally  and  the  results  published  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  residents 
in  the  valley  and  especially  for  settlers  newly  arrived  from  the  east. 

Accordingly  the  following  bill  was  prepared  and  passed  the  State 
Legislature  early  in  1908: 

"An  Act  making  an  appropriation  for  the  investigation  of  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  problems  and  conditions  in  Imperial  Valley 


BULLETIN   210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  141 

and  providing  for  the  establishment  in  said  county  of  a  branch  agri- 
cultural experiment  station  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  said  work. 

"The  people  of  the  State  of  California,  represented  in  senate  and 
assembly,  do  enact  as  follows : 

"Section  1.  The  regents  of  the  University  of  California  are 
hereby  directed  to  cause  to  be  prosecuted,  through  the  Southern 
California  Pathological  Laboratory  and  branch  agricultural  experi- 
ment station,  investigations  on  the  conditions  and  problems  attending 
the  culture  of  crops  in  the  region  known  as  the  Imperial  Valley  and 
similar  adjacent  sections. 

"Sec.  2.  Such  investigations  shall  be  particularly  directed  to- 
ward the  solution  of  various  difficulties  and  problems  affecting  the 
growing  of  crops,  which  have  arisen  in  said  region  on  account  of  the 
unique  natural  conditions  obtaining  in  that  portion  of  the  State. 

"Sec.  3.  The  regents  of  the  University  of  California  are  hereby 
authorized  to  establish  at  some  suitable  point  in  Imperial  county  a 
branch  agricultural  experiment  station  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
the  work  herein  provided  for;  provided  the  necessary  land  therefor 
is  obtained  without  cost  to  the  State. 

"Sec.  4.  The  sum  of  six  thousand  dollars  (6,000)  is  hereby 
appropriated  out  of  any  money  in  the  State  Treasury  not  otherwise 
appropriated  to  be  expended  by  the  regents  of  the  University  of 
California  in  carrying  out  the  purposes  of  this  act,  and  the  state 
controller  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  draw  his  warrant  for 
the  same,  payable  to  the  regents  of  the  University  of  California,  and 
the  treasurer  of  the  State  is  hereby  directed  to  pay  such  warrant." 

Accordingly  a  public  hearing  was  held  in  El  Centro  in  September, 
1909,  to  which  everyone  interested  in  the  establishment  of  the  station 
was  invited.  The  consensus  of  opinion  at  this  hearing  seemed  to  be 
that  the  amount  of  money  appropriated  was  insufficient  to  fully  es- 
tablish a  station  according  to  Section  3  of  the  law  and  that  it  should 
be  used  in  securing  one  or  more  men  to  carry  on  cooperative  experi- 
ments and  to  make  a  general  survey  of  the  conditions  and  needs  in 
regard  to  experimental  work;  the  work  conforming  to  the  require- 
ments of  Section  1  of  the  law.  This  has  been  carried  out  and  the 
present  publication  is  offered  as  the  result  of  a  study  of  the  plant  life 
history  of  the  region  with  particular  reference  to  the  adaptations  of 
the  different  crops. 

The  information  presented  herewith  has  been  drawn  from  many 
sources.  Some  field  experiments  have  been  carried  out  even  in  the 
short  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  work  was  begun.     The  authors 


142  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

have  visited  and  sent  letters  to  hundreds  of  ranchers  in  all  parts  of 
the  valley  in  the  work  of  collecting  together  the  results  of  private  ex- 
perimentation. This  information  has  been  sifted,  analyzed  and  ar- 
ranged in  order.  Considerable  data  was  obtained  from  the  older  irri- 
gated Coachella  Valley  and  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  Imperial 
Valley.  The  findings  of  the  branch  station  of  the  Arizona  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Yuma  in  the  Colorado  River  Valley  have  been  given 


Fig.  2. — Scene  on  Whiting  Ranch   after  eight  years  of  irrigation. 

due  consideration,  for  this  region  has  much  in  common  with  the  Im- 
perial Valley.  After  exhausting  all  available  sources  of  information, 
there  of  course  still  remained  a  number  of  crops  concerning  which 
but  little  definite  data  could  be  gained. 

This  bulletin  represents,  therefore,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  digest  of 
indications  as  well  as  actual  experimental  results,  and  we  hope  that 
in  as  much  as  it  is  intended  primarily  for  newly  arrived  settlers  who 
may  be  largely  ignorant  of  local  conditions,  that  it  will  be  received 
with  charity  by  those  older  residents  of  the  valley  who  have  gained 
by  costly  experience  much  of  the  information  we  would  disseminate. 

THE  WEATHER  CONDITIONS. 

On  account  of  the  short  time  during  which  the  Imperial  Valley  has 
been  settled  the  available  weather  records  are  very  meagre  and  frag- 
mentary. They  do  not  extend  back  through  a  sufficient  number  of 
years  to  constitute  a  body  of  data  from  which  reliable  averages  may 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


143 


be  computed.  In  studying  the  relation  between  climate  and  crops, 
however,  the  extremes  are  much  more  important  than  the  means  and 
constitute  in  most  cases  the  factor  which  determines  the  possibilities 
of  growth. 

In  common  with  other  inland  arid  regions  the  weather  of  the  Im- 
perial Valley  is  noted  for  its  extremes.  It  is  characterized  by  changes 
and  variations  both  in  temperatures,  wind  velocity  and  humidity 
which  are  often  very  sudden.  Being  hemmed  in  by  mountains  on  the 
east,  north  and  west,  the  valley  is  denied  the  great  regulating  in- 
fluence of  a  large  and  deep  body  of  water.  Variations  in  temperature 
within  each  twenty-four  hours  are  usually  great,  and  sometimes 
amount  to  as  much  as  fifty  degrees.  Throughout  a  large  part  of  the 
year  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  very  low  and  conse- 
quently the  days  are  relatively  warmer  and  the  nights  relatively 
cooler  than  in  humid  and  coast  regions  in  the  same  latitude.  A  large 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  acts  as  a  blanket  in  retarding  the  pene- 
tration and  radiation  of  heat,  and  consequently  where  this  is  largely 
lacking  the  rapid  heating  of  the  air  at  sunrise  and  cooling  off  at  sun- 
set is  very  noticeable.  On  account  of  the  dry  air  and  the  consequent 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  body  the  high  temperatures 
of  summer  are  not  unbearable  and  do  not  seem  nearly  so  high  as  the 
dry  bulb  thermometer  may  indicate.  During  a  part  of  July  and 
August  when  the  relative  humidity  is  increased  by  the  proximity  of 
thunder  storms  the  weather  is  very  unpleasant.  During  the  winter 
months  the  climate  is  usually  dry,  crisp,  and  sunny,  and  is  considered 
by  all  to  be  both  delightful  and  invigorating. 


Weekly  Maximum  and  Minimum  Temperatures  and  Weekly  Averages  of 

Eelative  Humidity. 
Taken  at  El  Centro  by  Capt.  Allen  Kelly, 


Av.  Relative 

Av.  Relative 

1909 

Max. 

Min. 

Humidity 

1909 

Max. 

Min. 

Humidity 

Jan.  7 

70 

40 

28 

8 

91 

49 

9 

14 

78 

42 

27 

15 

91 

50 

25 

21 

78 

46 

28 

22 

91 

51 

35 

28 

74 

36 

32 

29 

96 

53 

30 

Feb.  4 

70 

38 

28 

May 

6 

100 

55 

18 

11 

69 

39 

27 

13 

97 

56 

35 

18 

75 

40 

19 

20 

94 

55 

25 

25 

80 

41 

11 

27 

101 

60 

25 

Mar.  4 

79 

42 

22 

June 

3 

112 

56 

30 

11 

78 

44 

17 

10 

109 

62 

21 

18 

77 

38 

21 

17 

108 

62 

19 

25 

71 

39 

27 

24 

'  108 

68 

24 

Apr.  1 

82 

51 

15 

July 

1 

114 

72 

27 

144 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Av.  Relative 

1909 

Max. 

Min. 

Humidity 

July  8 

108 

66 

23 

15 

113 

66 

18 

22 

114 

74 

31 

29 

110 

64 

21 

Aug.  5 

110 

70 

31 

12 

114 

73 

30 

19 

102 

70 

37 

26 

108 

81 

26 

Sept.  2 

110 

74 

31 

9 

107 

72 

52 

16 

106 

64 

23 

105 

62 

30 

100 

58 

Av.  Relative 

1909 

Max. 

Min. 

Humidity 

Oct.   7 

96 

52 

3 

14 

98 

56 

21 

95 

52 

28 

102 

52 

Nov.  4 

96 

45 

11 

92 

46 

18 

80 

37 

9 

25 

86 

39 

17 

Dec.  2 

78 

34 

9 

9 

64 

48 

16 

74 

35 

23 

59 

27 

30 

68 

32 

Daily  Relative  Humidity  Records  for  1909  Taken  by  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 

at  Brawley,  Cal. 


Time  of  Observations  5  p.m. 


Day  of 

Month 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

41 

36 

31 

17 

6 

9 

13 

13 

42 

19 

15 

45 

2 

43 

33 

34 

12 

10 

8 

24 

18 

18 

38 

16 

42 

3 

45 

83 

33 

13 

10 

21 

34 

25 

27 

25 

17  • 

17 

4 

46 

43 

26 

30 

11 

21 

23 

32 

35 

22 

24 

21 

5 

44 

42 

23 

20 

10 

9 

10 

77 

47 

24 

19 

30 

6 

46 

64 

40 

24 

13 

6 

14 

34 

48 

15 

23 

42 

7 

49 

56 

19 

16 

15 

17 

17 

24 

41 

21 

22 

43 

8 

44 

34 

21 

18 

12 

14 

9 

33 

23 

18 

25 

43 

9 

54 

50 

29 

14 

18 

9 

10 

18 

15 

13 

33 

72 

10 

46 

51 

16 

13 

15 

9 

9 

17 

26 

14 

35 

50 

11 

31 

55 

30 

29 

8 

9 

12 

14 

11 

26 

49 

24 

12 

46 

66 

18 

16 

22 

9 

12 

36 

14 

26 

43 

26 

13 

57 

43 

19 

13 

35 

9 

14 

37 

10 

26 

32 

26 

14 

60 

26 

16 

16 

14 

11 

22 

50 

14 

22 

51 

25 

15 

57 

39 

18 

29 

15 

8 

31 

52 

19 

23 

33 

33 

16 

39 

25 

25 

19 

12 

11 

30 

91 

17 

40 

22 

28 

17 

37 

39 

20 

23 

12 

14 

26 

56 

14 

33 

27 

19 

18 

42 

31 

36 

32 

16 

27 

26 

42 

14 

29 

31 

24 

19 

42 

23 

22 

29 

26 

14 

24 

33 

16 

17 

44 

19 

20 

49 

37 

40 

20 

18 

9 

13 

24 

12 

27 

25 

93 

21 

46 

44 

31 

30 

25 

10 

12 

22 

25 

22 

52 

65 

22 

50 

14 

82 

11 

25 

14 

43 

20 

22 

22 

39 

87 

23 

55 

15 

52 

14 

25 

10 

25 

29 

24 

14 

46 

75 

24 

34 

32 

42 

17 

11 

17 

33 

39 

23 

24 

42 

49 

25 

63 

34 

33 

15 

9 

16. 

22 

34 

24 

15 

51 

52 

26 

58 

33 

85 

15 

9 

28 

13 

35 

23 

18 

94 

47 

27 

68 

31 

39 

10 

16 

20 

8 

27 

53 

28 

40 

50 

28 

51 

31 

36 

21 

19 

23 

6 

27 

12 

16 

29 

49 

29 

34 

36 

12 

10 

18 

11 

29 

15 

29 

31 

49 

30 

33 

13 

7 

8 

13 

22 

89 

21 

24 

38 

33 

:;i 

44 

15 

8 

16 

58 

23 

88 

Av.  16.9      39.3      31.6      18.5      14.9      13.8      18.8      36.6      23.5      23.6      34.9      44.1 


Bulletin  210. 


IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS     CROP  MANUAL. 


145 


The  average  wind  movement  for  the  year  is  from  five  to  six  miles 
an  hour  and  the  usual  direction  is  from  the  south  and  southwest.  About 
every  two  or  three  weeks  in  the  spring,  however,  and  with  longer  in- 
termissions in  the  summer  and  fall  there  arises  a  sudden  strong  wind 
which  blows  from  one  to  four  days  at  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  miles 
per  hour,  usually  from  the  northwest,  but  sometimes  from  the  south- 
west. These  winds  are  known  locally  as  dust  storms  and  carry  suffi- 
cient impalpable  dust  to  obscure  completely  at  times  the  mountain 
ranges  to  the  north  and  west.    These  winds  have  resulted  in  the  piling 


**J£BHit  i$h-  ■  .~4flhj 

>     J||Vifa|||  jWa  jJ^Bft     JKLjEmmML 

A  - 

-^ffm 

i^^'^'liP^ 

Fig.  3. — Typical  hummock  of  wind-blown  sand. 

up  along  the  northeastern  side  of  the  valley  of  sand  dunes  of  consid- 
erable height  and  extent.  The  thunder  storms  so  common  during 
July  and  August  in  central  Arizona  are  much  less  common  in  Im- 
perial Valley,  but  during  these  months  there  is  a  marked  increase 
in  the  relative  humidity. 

In  view  of  the  frequency  of  winds  it  is  highly  desirable  that  for 
the  good  of  the  orchards  and  the  greater  comfort  of  the  home  that  the 
rate  of  tree  planting  in  the  valley  be  greatly  increased.  Tall  wind- 
breaks of  eucalyptus  or  cottonwood  running  north  and  south  at  fre- 
quent intervals  would  do  much  to  lessen  the  damage  and  discomfort 
due  to  these  winds. 

WIND  VELOCITY. 
Average  Monthly  Movement  at  BRxYwley,  Cal.  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau). 

In  Miles  Per  Hour. 

—1909 — 
Mar.      Apr.      May     June     July       Aug.      Sept.      Oct. 
Av.  monthly  mov't      7.9       9.0       8.7       6.8       6.4       5.9       5.4       4.9 


Max.  for  5  min. 


34        36 


38 


28 


44 


28 


24 


— 1910 — 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan.       Feb. 

A 

5.4 

4.7 

4.5         5.8 

6 

36 

27 

39        35 

33 

146  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

So  far  as  the  growth  of  crops  is  concerned  the  natural  rainfall 
amounts  to  very  little  and  cannot  be  depended  on.  Much  of  the  pre- 
cipitation comes  in  light  showers  and  soon  evaporates  again  into  the 
air.  The  weather  records  of  precipitation  in  the  valley  are  so  meagre 
as  to  be  worth  little.  At  Indio,  however,  near  the  northern  end  of 
the  valley,  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  has  kept  records  of  rainfall  for 
thirty-two  years  and  it  is  likely  that  the  rainfall  there  is  practically 
the  same  as  in  the  Imperial  Valley. 


Monthly  and  An: 

STUAL  '. 

Precipitation  at  '. 

Indio, 

Eiverside  Counts 

",  Cal 

Ele 

vation 

20  feet. 

Year 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June  Annual 

1877 

0 

1.98 

0.10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.10 

1878 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.00 

0.60 

0.30 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.30 

1879 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.40 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.70 

1880 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.70 

3.45 

0 

0.50 

0 

0 

0 

3.95 

1881 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.50 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2.50 

1882 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.00 

0 

0.80 

1.13 

0.11 

0 

0 

0 

2.96 

1883 

0 

0 

0 

0.06 

0 

0.86 

0 

3.16 

0.62 

0.44 

0.46 

0 

5.38 

1884 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.70 

0 

0 

0 

0.10 

0 

0 

1.00 

1885 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.90 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.12 

1886 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.12 

0 

0 

0.93 

0 

0.30 

0 

0 

1.43 

1887 

0 

T 

0.05 

0.15 

0 

0 

0.75 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2.96 

1888 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.10 

1.11 

0.57 

0 

1.05 

0 

0 

0 

6.47 

1889 

0 

0.95 

0 

0.60 

0.01 

3.29 

0.65 

0.06 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.23 

1890 

0 

0.10 

0.20 

0 

0 

0.22 

0 

1.90 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3.31 

1891 

0 

1.16 

0 

0 

0 

0.25 

2.00 

0.43 

0.22 

0.04 

0.14 

0 

2.83 

1892 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.03 

0 

1.60 

0 

0 

0 

2.64 

1893 

0.05 

0.75 

0.07 

0 

0.14 

T 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

T 

1894 

T 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6.01 

0 

0 

0 

0 

T 

6.01 

1895 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.92 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.92 

1896 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.10 

0.19 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3.39 

1897' 

0 

0 

2.10 

0 

0 

0 

0.10 

0 

0.30 

0 

0 

0 

1.70 

1898 

0 

0.30 

0 

0 

0 

1.00 

0.40 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.30 

1899 

0 

0 

0.10 

0 

0.60 

0.20 

1.00 

0 

0.30 

0.15 

T 

0 

2.74 

1900 

0 

0 

0.08 

1.04 

0.17 

0 

0.29 

1.46 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1.75 

1901 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.40 

0.20 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2.00 

1902 

0.10 

0 

0 

0 

0.50 

0.80 

0 

0 

0.20 

0.75 

0 

0 

1.58 

1903 

0 

0.10 

0.12 

0 

0 

0.41 

0.87 

0.35 

0.20 

0 

T 

0 

2.43 

1904 

T 

0.33 

0 

0.80 

0.19 

0.41 

0.87 

2.00 

1.30 

0 

T 

0 

5.37 

1905 

0 

0 

T 

T 

1.06 

0.14 

T 

0.97 

2.06 

0.47 

0 

0 

7.10 

1906 

T 

1.07 

0.04 

T 

0.60 

1.89 

0.59 

0.63 

0.96 

0 

0.05 

0 

3.88 

1907 

0 

0 

0 

1.60 

0.05 

T 

0.95 

0.57 

0.01 

0 

0 

0 

3.64 

1908 

T 

0.45 

1.60 

0 

0 

0.06 

0.28 

0.29 

0.45 

0 

0 

0 

Av.     0       0.17     0.14     0.11     0.22     0.42     0.76     0.46     0.31     0.07     0.02        0       2.70 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


147 


But  not  only  has  the  Imperial  Valley  in  common  with  other  parts 
of  the  arid  southwest,  the  lowest  rainfall  and  lowest  relative  hu- 
midity, but  it  also  has  a  greater  amount  of  sunshine  and  a  greater 
number  of  clear  days  in  the  year  than  any  other  area  on  the  continent. 
Mr.  E.  F.  Chumard,  located  two  miles  east  of  Heber,  has  furnished 
the  Weather  Bureau  the  following  record  of  clear  and  cloudy  days. 

Sunshine  Eecord  in  Days  at  Heber,  Gal. 


Year 

Clear 

Partly  Cloudy 

Cloudy 

1906 

290 

38 

37 

1907 

302 

42 

21 

1908 

308 

37 

20 

1909 

315 

23 

27 

Fig.  4. — Cracking  of  new-formed  soil  in  ditch  bottom. 


SOILS  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  VALLEY. 

In  general,  the  Imperial  Valley  is  a  constructional  depression 
caused  by  the  subsidence  of  a  number  of  faulted  strips.1  Erosion 
played  no  part  in  its  formation,  as  can  be  readily  seen  from  the  fact 
that  the  bed  of  the  valley  is  far  below  sea  level  and  therefore  below 
any  possible  erosive  action.  At  the  time  of  this  subsidence  an  arm  of 
the  ocean  filled  the  valley  thus  formed,  extending  probably  200  miles 
north  to  San  Gorgonio  Pass.  The  Colorado  River  emptying  into  this 
gulf  rapidly  formed  a  massive  delta  which  gradually  reached  across 
the  gulf,  coalescing  with  the  small  amount  of  aluvium  and  talus  from 


i  U.  S.  G.  S.  Water  Supply  Paper  No.  225,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall. 


148  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

the  peninsula  range.  The  river  at  that  time  probaliy  carried  as  much 
material  as  at  present,  which,  according-  to  calculations  by  Forbes, 
would  in  one  year  cover  one  square  mile  with  dry  earth  to  a  depth 
of  fifty-three  feet.  The  continuation  of  this  process  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  a  barrier,  leaving  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf  an  inland 
sea.  The  deposition  of  silt  continued,  the  river  following  various 
courses  across  the  delta,  discharging  both  into  the  gulf  and  into  what 
is  now  called  the  Salton  Sink.  This  great  inland  sea,  although  prob- 
ably refilled  at  various  times  by  receiving  the  entire  flow  of  the  river, 
was  gradually  diminished  by  evaporation  until  the  present  floor  of 
the  valley  was  left  dry. 

Upon  the  northern  slope  of  the  delta  thus  formed  lies  the  Im- 
perial Valley.  The  main  mass  of  soils  were  deposited  in  the  quiet 
water  which  formerly  filled  the  basin.  On  this  account  the  floor  of 
the  valley  is  covered  largely  with  a  fine  laminated  silt,  which  is  broken 
in  places  by  more  sandy  areas  deposited  in  the  slowly  moving  water 
of  the  varying  delta  channels  or  blown  in  by  the  wind.  The  outer 
edges  of  the  valley  are  covered  by  coarser  silts  and  sands,  some  of 
which  have  been  deposited  by  the  wind  and  others  by  the  intermittent 
torrential  streams  from  the  surrounding  mountains.  The  accompany- 
ing cross  section,  taken  from  the  logs  of  wells  bored  at  various  points 
between  the  towns  of  Holtville  and  El  Centro  shows  the  alternating 
soil  strata  so  characteristic  of  the  valley. 

The  drainage  area  of  the  Colorado  River  covers  more  than  225,000 
square  miles,  including  parts  of  Wyoming,  Utah,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico,  Nevada,  California  and  all  of  Arizona.  The  soil  formed  by  the 
disintegration  and  decomposition  of  the  varied  rocks  of  so  large  an 
area  would  naturally  be  expected  to  contain  a  plentiful  supply  of 
mineral  plant  food  elements.  The  aridity  of  the  climate  which  pre- 
vents the  excessive  leaching  of  soluble  salts  tends  to  maintain  the 
initial  fertility  of  such  soils.  The  content  of  nitrogen,  however,  would 
presumably  be  low,  as  in  most  desert  soils  where  humus  forming  vege- 
tation is  largely  lacking.  These  facts  are  borne  out  by  analyses  made 
by  the  California  Experiment  Station. 

Not  only  are  the  essential  plant  food  elements,  potassium  and  phos- 
phorous, present  in  sufficient  quantities,  but  the  amount  of  carbonate 
of  lime  present  is  such  that  these  elements  should  be  made  readily 
available.  There  is  enough  potash  in  the  samples  tested  to  render  the 
soils  permanently  fertile  in  respect  to  this  element.  With  the  yearly 
addition  of  both  potassium  and  phosphorous  in  the  irrigation  sediments 
the  necessity  of  applying  commercial  fertilizers  containing  those  ele- 
mehts  may  never  arise.    The  proper  physical  condition  must  be  main- 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  MANUAL. 


149 


Sffl    LevfL, 


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£00 


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Fig.  5. — Logs  of  artesian  wells  drilled  at  Holtville  and  El  Centre 
(From  "The  Desert  Farmer,"  April,  1910.) 


150  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

tained,  however,  as  upon  this  depends  largely  the  promotion  of  neces- 
sary bacterial  action,  whereby  not  only  the  nitrogen  but  the  other 
plant  food  elements  are  made  available.  In  certain  cases,  however, 
fertilization  with  chemicals  may  prove  to  be  profitable. 


T 

YPE    OF 

Medium 

Hard  Soil. 

Type 

of  Hard 

Soil. 

£ 

0 
W 

Humus- 
Nitrogen 

r 

Xfl 

e 

in 

"S 

P. 

Q 

02 

P 

s 

P 

W 

Humus- 
Nitrogen 

in 

P 

ft 

r 

CO 

s 

'5 
m 

"u 

ft  « 

1 

.30 

5.15 

.015 

.13 

1 

.24 

6.14 

.020 

.16 

2 

.23 

5.49 

.013 

.13 

2 

.16 

3.51 

.006 

.15 

3 

.22 

6.38 

.014 

.12 

3 

.21 

3.34 

.007 

.14 

4 

.31 

4.54 

.014 

.13 

4 

.19 

4.43 

.008 

.18 

All  of  the  valley  soils  are  markedly  deficient  in  humus  and  nitro- 
gen, and  it  therefore  follows  that  the  highest  possible  production  may 
not  be  reached  on  these  soils  without  improvement  in  this  respect. 
Both  humus  and  nitrogen  can  be  supplied  by  manure  or  by  plowing 
under  leguminous  crops,  such  as  cow  peas,  soy  beans,  alfalfa,  etc. 
Plowing  under  old  alfalfa  fields  is  especially  advisable,  as  the  deep 
rooting  habit  of  this  crop  enables  it  to  open  up  the  subsoil  to  both  its 
physical  and  chemical  betterment.  By  plowing  under  crops  such  as 
barley  or  winter  rye,  humus  will  be  formed  and  the  physical  condition 
improved,  although  no  nitrogen  will  be  directly  added. 

Alkali  is  present  in  all  arid  soils,  but  is  detrimental  to  plant 
growth  in  Imperial  Valley  in  limited  areas  only.  The  presence  of 
these  salts  has  caused  some  apprehension  among  the  settlers  of  the 
valley  and  as  it  often  presents  a  serious  problem  in  older  irrigated 
sections,  the  subject  of  alkali  and  alkali  reclamation  will  be  discussed 
here  more  or  less  at  length.  Tables  and  formulas  are  avoided  in 
order  to  prevent  confusion. 

The  alkali  salts  in  Imperial  Valley  soils  originate  both  from  saline 
deposits  and  from  the  decomposition  of  certain  rock  minerals.  Some 
of  these  salts  are  nutritive,  but  all  of  them  are  detrimental  to  plant 
growth  when  present  in  excessive  amounts.  The  nutritive  alkalis 
(sulphate  of  potash,  phosphate  of  soda  and  nitrate  of  soda)  contain 
the  three  elements  most  generally  lacking  and  are  usually  present  in 
limited  amounts,  while  the  injurious  alkalis,  namely  Glauber  salt  or 
sodium  sulphate,  common  salt  or  sodium  chloride,  black  alkali  or 
sodium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate,  magnesium  chloride,  and  epsum 
salts  or  magnesium  sulphate  are  usually  present  in  larger  quantities,, 
but  as  the  less  injurious  chlorides  and  sulphates  predominate  in  the 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  151 

Imperial  soils  the  alkali  situation  is  not  so  serious  as  in  many  arid 
sections. 

An  alkali  soil  is  usually  a  rich  soil,  because  the  presence  of  the 
salts  usually  indicates  an  abundance  of  soluble  plant  food  elements. 
If  the  alkali  content,  either  nutritive  or  otherwise,  is  too  high,  how- 
ever, all  ordinary  plant  life  ceases.  The  ability  of  plants  to  withstand 
salt  solutions  varies  with  the  kind  of  salts,  some  being  more  damaging 
than  others.  All  ordinary  plants  are  able  to  grow  in  soil  containing 
the  chloride  in  amounts  up  to  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  the  sulphate 
up  to  seven-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  while  the  carbonate  becomes  inju- 
rious when  five  one-hundredth  to  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  is  present. 
This  of  course  varies  in  different  soils  and  with  different  crops.  Not 
only  does  the  black  alkali  injure  the  plants  directly,  but  it  puddles 
the  soil,  thus  preventing  drainage  and  proper  aeration.  In  some 
cases  gypsum  is  applied  to  land  affected  with  black  alkali  for  the 
purpose  of  changing  the  carbonate  to  less  objectionable  sulfate.  There 
is  only  a  small  amount  of  black  alkali  in  Imperial  soils,  however. 
The  common  black  coloring  noticed  in  many  of  the  alkali  patches  is 
not  usually  caused  by  a  humic  solution  but ' '  merely  by  moisture  which 
is  tenaciously  held  by  the  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  impreg- 
nating the  land  and  thus  contrasting  strongly  with  the  grey  tint  of 
the  general  soil  surface. '  '2 

As  these  salts  are  all  soluble  they  move  in  the  soil  more  or  less  with 
the  movement  of  the  soil  moisture.  After  a  short  rain  or  irrigation 
the  salts  are  carried  down,  but  with  the  capillary  rise  of  the  moisture 
from  below,  the  salts  rise  exactly  as  oil  rises  in  a  lamp  wick,  and  are 
left  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  when  the  water  evaporates.  Most 
of  the  damage  from  black  alkali  is  due  to  this  surface  accumulation, 
as  it  has  a  corrosive  action  on  the  stems  of  plants,  -turning  the  bark 
and  cambium  layer  black  or  dark  brown,  thus  weakening  and  some- 
times girdling  the  plants.  Cultivation  lessens  this  damage,  for  by 
keeping  the  soil  well  stirred  incrustations  of  salts  cannot  form  in 
contact  with  the  plant.  The  chlorides  affect  the  plants  largely  through 
osmotic  poisoning,  when  damaging  quantities  are  present. 

Complete  alkali  reclamation  can  only  be  accomplished  by  washing 
the  salts  out  of  the  soil  and  this,  of  course,  means  drainage.  For 
this  purpose  tile  drains  are  most  satisfactory.  It  has  been  repeat- 
edly demonstrated  that  alkali  land  can  be  reclaimed  in  this  way 
economically.  The  cost  of  installing  such  drains  should  not  be  much 
greater  than  in  the  east  where  tile  drainage  is  so  commonly  employed. 


2  Snow,  Bull.  140,  Calif.  Exp.  Station, 


152 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Inverted  wooden  troughs  are  sometimes  used  but  are  not  satisfactory, 
as  the  wood  rots  too  quickly.  Surface  drainage  will  wash  the  alkali 
down  into  the  sub-soils  and  may  carry  some  away  in  the  natural  drain- 
age, but  the  amount  actually  taken  out  of  the  soil  in  this  way  is  slight. 
In  time  the  salts  will  reappear  on  the  surface  as  they  appeared  in  the 
first  place.  Thorough  cultivation  of  the  surface  to  prevent  the  capil- 
lary rise  of  moisture  will,  of  course,  help  in  holding  the  alkali  down. 
Very  little  can  be  washed  from  the  surface  except  in  the  case  of  the 


Fig.  6. — Farm  drain  emptying  into  lower  canal,  as  seen  in  the  Salt  River 

Valley. 


hard  soils,  since  the  salts  are  carried  down  and  not  off.  The  econom- 
ical reclamation  of  the  bad  alkali  spots  on  the  hard  soil  is  impossible 
at  present,  because  of  its  close  texture.  Gypsum  is  used  in  the  case 
of  black  alkali  to  change  the  carbonate  into  the  less  injurious  sulphate, 
which  must  then  be  washed  out  to  entirely  reclaim  the  land. 

The  channels  of  New  and  Alamo  Rivers  should  make  an  excellent 
outlet  for  drains,  both  to  carry  away  the  alkali  and  to  get  rid  of  excess 
of  water  which  is  apt  to  collect  in  soil  underlaid  by  thick  layers  of 
impervious  clay.  Alkali  resistant  crops,  such  as  kafir  corn  or  sugar 
beets,  should  be  tried  on  these  soils.  Date  palms,  especially  if  once 
well  started,  will  endure  a  large  amount  of  alkali. 

The  compactness  of  the  heavier  soils  in  the  valley  renders  them 
comparatively  hard  to  manage.  On  account  of  the  plasticity  of  the 
clay  and  fine  silt  in  those  soils,  plowing  and  cultivation  can  be  done 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  VALLEY  settlers'  CROP  MANUAL.  153 

well  only  when  the  moisture  conditions  are  just  right.  Water  pene- 
trates these  soils  very  slowly,  so  that  thorough  irrigation  is  often 
difficult.  In  tests  made  on  this  soil  after  irrigation  had  been  carried 
on  for  three  months  at  two  week  periods,  the  percent  of  moisture  in 
the  first  foot  was  13.3,  second  foot  16.4  to  20.0,  third  foot  13.7,  the 
fifth  foot  being  dust  dry.  Crops  on  the  hard  soils  tested  were  wilting 
when  13%  moisture  was  present.  In  moisture  tests  made  on  heavy 
soils  it  would  appear,  therefore,  that  at  least  13%  is  necessary  for  the 
life  of  ordinary  plants,  while  on  sandy  loam  soils  alfalfa  and  grapes 
did  well  with  only  7%  of  moisture  present.  In  the  sandy  soils  it  was 
found  that  the  moisture  content  increased  with  the  depth,  being 
greater  at  the  fourth  than  at  the  first  foot.  Crops  did  not  wilt  in 
cases  tested  where  the  moisture  averaged  from  6%  to  7%.  The  pene- 
trability of  the  soil  varies  greatly,  depending  partly  on  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  silt  carried  by  the  water,  but  in  any  case  water 
must  be  applied  oftener  on  heavy  than  on  sandy  soils. 

The  heavy  soils  of  the  valley  represent  the  finest  particles  carried  : 
by  the  Colorado  River  and  deposited  in  thin  layers  over  these  places 
where  the  land  was  annually  overflowed  or  in  the  quiet  waters  form- 
ally filling  the  depression.  The  soil  particles  under  such  conditions 
are  in  a  very  finely  divided  state,  having  somewhat  the  characteristics 
of  puddled  soil.  The  aridity  of  the  climate  has  prevented  a  large 
growth  of  tules  or  other  water  plants  so  that  the  physical  conditions 
of  the  surface  has  not  been  opened  up  and  improved  by  roots  as  in 
the  case  of  soils  in  more  humid  regions.  In  order  to  loosen  up  these 
soils  and  render  them  more  friable,  the  finer  particles  must  be  flocul- 
ated  or  collected  together  into  small  bundles  somewhat  resembling 
minute  pop-corn  balls.  This  gives  the  soil  more  openness  and  allows 
the  air  and  water  to  circulate  more  freely  and  allows  such  bacterial 
action  as  will  render  inert  plant  food  available. 

This  process  will  take  time  but  can  be  accomplished  at  least  to  a 
large  extent  by  applying  manure,  plowing  under  cover  crops  (pre- 
ferably alfalfa)  and  by  as  deep  and  thorough  cultivation  as  can  be 
economically  given.  An  application  of  lime  would  help  in  floculating 
these  soils,  even  though  the  content  of  lime  is  already  quite  high.  The 
effect  of  the  proper  mechanical  condition  of  soil  is  well  illustrated  on 
the  edges  of  the  borders  in  the  fields  where  the  alkali  tends  to  floculate 
the  particles,  giving  a  loose,  open  condition  where  crops  usually  grow 
better  than  in  other  places.  The  deep  penetration  of  the  alfalfa  roots 
is  especially  beneficial  and  will  probably  open  up  the  sub-soils  better 
than  by  using  a  sub-soiler.  A  sub-soiler  used  on  these  hard  soils  when 
wet  would  tend  to  compact  the  deeper  layers  rather  than  loosen  them 


154 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


up,  and  if  the  soil  is  dry  the  expense  of  running  the  subsoiler  would 
be  too  great. 

The  improvement  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  hard  soils  in 
Imperial  Valley  will  come  through  the  natural  processes  of  good 
farming  practice,  including  always  a  rotation  of  crops,  using  some 
deep  rooted  legume,  such  as  alfalfa,  these  soils  should  lose  much  of 
their  present  objectionable  features. 


Fig.  7. — Excavation   for  concrete  headgate  showing  alternating  soil  strata; 
and  the  foundation  for  reinforcement. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  155 

There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  various  soil  types  in  the 
valley,  both  chemically  and  mechanically,  although  the  mechanical 
differences  are  much  the  most  marked.  Differences  in  alkalinity,  how- 
ever, have  a  more  marked  effect  on  native  vegetation  than  mechanical 
differences.  In  summing  up,  a  short  discussion  of  each  soil  type 
follows : 

The  hard  soils  are  intrinsically  fertile,  more  fertile  than  the  sands, 
but  as  has  been  pointed  out  their  plastic  and  compact  nature  renders 
them  difficult  to  handle.  The  physical  condition  must  be  improved 
before  much  of  plant  food  can  be  made  available  to  the  plants.  This 
soil  forms  the  underlying  strata  over  the  entire  valley,  but  appears  on 
the  surface  only  towards  the  central  portion.  The  mechanical  analysis 
made  at  Berkeley  (California  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  140), 
shows  this  soil  to  contain  28.78%  of  colloidal  clay  and  63.31%  of  fine 
silt,  which  gives  it  the  characteristic  sticky  character.  In  those  limited 
areas  where  this  soil  contains  a  high  percentage  of  alkali,  reclamation 
will  be  unprofitable,  at  least  at  present  prices  of  land.  Such  recla- 
mation would  be  extremely  difficult  from  an  economical  point  of  view, 
because  the  compact  character  of  the  soil  interferes  with  drainage. 

The  soil  is  best  adapted  at  present  to  shallow  rooted  crops,  such  as 
barley,  sorghum,  Egyptian  or  kafir  corn,  or  any  of  the  grasses.  Date 
palms  will  do  well  on  this  soil.  Alfalfa,  however,  should  be  tried  only 
after  a  couple  of  crops  of  barley  have  been  grown.  In  this  way  such 
hard  soils  may  be  improved  to  some  extent. 

The  medium  hard  type  constitutes  some  of  the  best  soil  in  the 
valley  for  certain  crops,  although  it  has  some  of  the  bad  features  of  the 
heavier  clays,  but  to  a  lesser  degree.  The  mechanical  analysis  shows 
this  soil  to  contain  14.34%  clay  and  15.34%  fine  silt,  the  rest  being 
from  a  medium  to  a  coarse  silt  with  a  very  little  sand  intermixed.  The 
soil  is  formed  in  thin  layers  as  is  the  clay  and  becomes  sticky  when 
damp.  This  soil  contains  more  nitrogen  than  any  of  the  other  soils, 
which  may  account  in  part  for  the  fact  that  it  has  proved  to  be  the 
best  cotton  land  in  the  valley.  This  soil  is  best  adapted  to  such  field 
crops  as  cotton,  grain,  alfalfa,  and  sugar  beets,  although  trees  do  well 
also.    The  soil  can  be  greatly  improved  by  the  methods  outlined  above. 

The  sandy  loam  soil  covers  quite  a  large  portion  of  the  valley, 
usually  overlying  either  clay  or  clay  loam  strata,  to  a  depth  of  3  feet 
or  more.  This  soil  contains "  little  clay  or  fine  silt,  being  made  up 
mainly  of  coarser  silt  and  very  fine  sand.  This  type  of  soil  is  very 
spotted  in  respect  to  the  alkali  content,  being  the  worst  soil  in  the 
valley  in  certain  limited  areas.  Most  of  it  is  relatively  free  from 
damaging  quantities  of  salts  near  the  surface,  so  that  with  proper  care 


156  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

in  handling  the  irrigation  water  the  alkali  should  not  ruin  the  soil. 
If  care  is  not  taken  in  applying  the  water,  however,  alkali  will  in  time 
accumulate  at  the  surface  and  destroy  the  vegetation,  as  it  has  done 
in  so  many  irrigation  enterprises. 

This  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  trees,  vines,  alfalfa, 
melons,  or  any  garden  truck.  Roots  will  penetrate  deeper  and  will 
therefore  have  a  greater  feeding  area  than  in  the  hard  soil  when  the 
best  root  development  is  restricted.  _ 

The  dune  sand  is  not  so  rich  in  plant  food  elements  as  any  of  the 
other  soils  and  will  need  more  fertilization,  especially  in  nitrogen, 
before  the  best  results  can  be  obtained.  This  soil  is  carried  by  the 
winds  and  is  therefore  a  nuisance  in  filling  ditches  and  covering  young 
crops.  The  early  planting  of  eucalyptus  and  other  windbreaks  will 
do  much  to  remedy  this  defect. 

THE  USE  OF  WATEE  IN  IRRIGATION. 

Repeated  efforts  have  been  made  to  reclaim  the  Colorado  desert 
by  utilizing  the  waters  of  the  Colorado  River,  but  not  until  1900  was 
work  actually  begun  on  any  canal  system.  The  California  Develop- 
ment Company,  organized  in  1898,  appropriated  the  water  and  sold 
it  to  the  various  mutual  water  companies  composed  of  the  water  users 
of  the  valley.  Owing  to  many  unforseen  difficulties,  prominent  among 
them  the  breaking  of  the  Colorado  River  into  the  valley  in  1905,  the 
stopping  of  which  entailed  immense  expense,  the  California  Develop- 
ment Company  was  put  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver  in  1909.  The 
outcome  of  this  matter  is  still  uncertain,  but  from  present  indications 
the  water  problems  will  soon  be  solved  satisfactorily. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  Colorado  is  more  than  sufficient  for  all 
irrigation  purposes  in  the  valley,  even  when  all  irrigable  land  is  re- 
claimed, and  if  proper  use  is  made  of  this  water  before  it  is  used  in 
any  other  project  up  the  river  the  future  right  to  such  water  will,  of 
course,  be  unquestioned.  There  have  been  a  number  of  serious  diffi- 
culties met  in  securing  this  supply  and  some  damage  has  been  done 
to  crops  at  various  times  by  the  partial  failure  of  the  water  supply, 
due  mainly  to  deposits  of  silt  in  the  intake.  The  water  has  never 
been  turned  off  entirely,  however,  and  the  shortage  has  always  been 
stopped  quickly  by  forming  a  new  intake  channel  or  by  the  construc- 
tion of  temporary  diversion  works.  As  the  delta  channel  of  the  Colo- 
rado is  being  constantly  and  rapidly  raised  by  the  continual  deposit 
of  silt,  there  is  a  constant  tendency  for  the  river  to  change  its  course 
toward  the  west,  where  the  gradient  is  greater.  On  this  account  the 
future  control  of  the  river  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  break  of  1905 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


157 


is  a  serious  problem.  This  matter  has  been  taken  up  by  the  Federal 
Government  and  an  appropriation  of  $1,000,000  has  been  made  to  be 
expended  at  the  discretion  of  the  President  in  controlling  the  river. 
A  levee  is  being  constructed  along  the  western  bank  of  the  river  from 


Fig.  8. — A  typical  canal  in  Imperial  Valley  showing  water  wheel  used  in 
raising  water  for  domestic  use. 


the  end  of  the  present  levee  extending  south  of  the  head  gates  to  a 
point  twenty  to  twenty-five  miles  below,  thus  holding  the  water  in 
the  southwesterly  course. 

The  quality  of  the  water  from  the  Colorado  differs  from  that  in 
most  streams  of  the  arid  west  in  the  amount  of  silt  carried  in  sus- 
pension throughout  the  year.     The  water  is  always  muddy,  carrying 


158 


UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


from  1/30  to  1/1200  parts  silt  by  weight,  amounting  to  about  35,000 
acre  feet  of  dry  earth  per  year.3  An  acre  foot  of  river  water  carries 
about  962  tons  of  silt.  Not  all  of  this  reaches  the  fields,  however,  as  a 
considerable  amount  is  deposited  in  the  canals.  Since  the  soil  of  the 
valley  is  simply  an  accumulation  of  this  sediment,  the  silt  which  comes 
onto  the  fields  through  the  canals  is  a  fertilizer,  having  the  same  chemi- 
cal properties  as  the  soil  but  being  a  little  more  finely  divided,  since 
the  coarser  particles  are  usually  deposited  in  the  canals. 


Fig.  9. — Showing  construction  of  concrete  headgate. 


The  chemical  and  physical  condition  of  the  sediments  depends 
upon  the  source  from  which  they  come  and  consequently  varies  in  the 
different  seasons.  During  the  winter  months  the  river  is  low  and  the 
silt  content  is  also  low  (62  parts  in  100,000 ),4  most  of  it  coming  from 
the  upper  drainage  area  of  the  Colorado  where  the  river  cuts  through 
a  high  plateau  region.  These  sediments  are  slightly  reddish  grey  in 
color  and  are  very  dense  when  dry.  When  the  river  rises  in  April 
from  the  effect  of  the  melting  snow  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Grand 
and  Green  Rivers,  the  amounts  of  silt  increase  (112  to  374  parts  in 
100,000),  most  of  it  coming  from  erosion  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
river.  As  the  spring  floods  subside  the  amount  of  silt  again  decreases 
to  about- 122  parts  in  100,000. 

All  of  the  silts  are  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but  are  at 


3  Bull.  44,  Ariz.  Exp.  Sta. 

4  Irrigation  in  Imperial  Valley  by  C.  E.  Tait. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


159 


present  mainly  valuable  for  the  nitrogen  which  they  contain.  This  is 
more  especially  true  of  the  silts  coming  in  the  summer  floods  which 
carry  the  washings  from  large  areas  of  grazing  land.  As  nitrogen  is 
the  element  most  lacking  in  the  valley  soils  these  silts  have  a  distinct 
fertilizing  value  from  this  element  alone.  From  the  standpoint  of 
soil  fertility,  therefore,  these  sediments  comprise  a  complete  though  not 
a  balanced  fertilizer  and  should  be  welcomed.  They  will  ultimately 
bear  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  the  fertility  of  the  valley  soils 


^  It    Jl  m 

25        a*- "Y-w 

fia    f  ^y^VijI -^ 

■^%Ki     "v- 

Fig.  10. — Silt  deposited  behind  a  diversion  gate. 


as  do  the  Nile  sediments  to  Egyptian  soils.  Wherever  this  condition 
exists  in  older  countries,  such  as  parts  of  China,  Japan  and  Egypt, 
the  silt  is  utilized  with  the  utmost  care. 

From  a  mechanical  standpoint  the  sediments  are  often  considered  a 
nuisance  by  many  farmers.  The  first  trouble  arises  in  the  maintenance 
of  ditches,  as  a  large  amount  of  silt  is  deposited  before  it  reaches  the 
fields.  Considerable  work  has  been  done  by  the  California  Develop- 
ment Company  in  devising  apparatus  for  clearing  the  large  canals. 
This  is  now  being  done  with  a  fair  degree  of  success.  (See  Fig.  11.) 
The  farm  ditches  are  are  universally  cleaned  with  Vs.  There  is  no 
way  at  present  for  overcoming  the  accumulation  of  silt  on  the  ditch 
banks  after  cleaning,  although  the  problem  may  be  solved  in  the  future 
by  constructing  a  system  of  drain  ditches  parallel  to  the  distributing 
system,  with  grade  enough  to  carry  away  the  accumulation  of  silt  as 


160  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

well  as  to  afford  general  drainage  for  the  country.  At  present  no 
special  trouble  has  been  encountered.  In  Egypt  this  same  condition 
has  existed  for  many  centuries. 

Forbes5  has  calculated  from  tests  (which  extended  over  twelve 
months)  of  the  Colorado  River  water  at  Yuma,  that  if  four  feet  of 
water  is  used  on  the  land  in  one  year,  twenty-three  one-hundredth 
(.23)  of  an  inch  of  soil  will  be  added  to  the  land.  This  is  supposing, 
of  course,  that  all  of  the  silt  carried  by  the  water  will  reach  the  land. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  a  large  part  is  dropped  in  the  canals 
and  ditches. 

The  silt  either  in  the  ditch  or  in  the  field  becomes  extremely  hard 
and  brittle  when  dry.  This  varies  with  the  character  of  the  silt,  the 
summer  silts  being  less  compact  than  the  winter  silts,  although  causing 
more  trouble  on  account  of  quantity  deposited.  The  fact  that  the 
particles  are  deposited  in  a  very  finely  divided  state  and  not  in  a 
floculated  condition,  is  the  cause  for  this  hardness.  By  the  natural 
processes  of  weathering,  these  hard  crusts,  if  not  too  thick,  are  in  time 
partly  loosened  and  incorporated  into  the  soil  below.  This  process  is 
greatly  assisted  by  discing,  renovating  or  cultivating  the  fields,  thus 
breaking  up  the  crusts  and  hastening  the  natural  processes  active  in 
the  soil.  The  difficulty  of  getting  water  into  the  soil  on  account  of  the 
impervious  layer  of  silt  is  lessened  by  breaking  up  this  crust  as  often 
as  possible,  not  only  to  allow  more  water  to  get  in  but  also  to  form  a 
mulch  to  hold  it  there.  The  renovating  of  alfalfa  is  especially  advo- 
cated as  the  silt  crust  is  usually  broken  up  and  turned  under  in  the 
case  of  most  other  crops.  The  silt  collecting  around  the  stems  of  young 
alfalfa  often  seriously  injures  it,  especially  at  the  head  of  the  field 
where  the  silt  deposit  is  the  thickest.  The  silt  acts  beneficially  in  some 
cases  in  filling  in  holes  or  small  depressions. 

The  Colorado  River  water  is  comparatively  free  from  injurious 
salts  even  during  low  water  periods,  and  the  salts  found  in  the  largest 
quantities  are  of  mild  nature.  The  nitrates  which  are  present  in  ap- 
preciable amounts  have,  of  course,  a  fertilizing  value. 

The  object  in  irrigating  is,  of  course,  to  get  water  into  the  soil  in 
the  shortest  possible  time,  as  losses  from  evaporation  are  great.  The 
productivity  of  a  fertile  soil,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  is  pro- 
portional to  the  amount  of  water  present,  provided  there  is  no  excess 
which  would  restrict  the  entrance  of  air  to  the  roots.  A  plant  uses 
from  225  to  900  times  its  dry  weight  of  water  and  therefore  the 
importance  of  proper  moisture  conditions  cannot  be  over  estimated. 


Arizona   Exp.  Station  Bull.  53,  p.  61 


BULLETIN   210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  161 

As  there  is  no  ground  water  which  can  be  used  by  crops  in  this  valley, 
especial  care  should  be  taken  to  get  enough  water  into  the  soil  to  sup- 
ply the  needs  of  a  maximum  production. 

The  number  of  irrigations  and  the  length  of  each  irrigation  de- 
pends upon  the  character  of  soil  and  the  method  of  applying  the 
water.  A  sandy  soil  takes  water  more  readily  and  less  water  is  needed 
to  meet  plant  requirements  than  in  a  heavy  soil,  but  there  is  no  gen- 
eral rule  which  can  be  applied  to  suit  all  conditions.  In  heavy  soils 
where  percolation  is  slow,  irrigation  should  be  more  frequent  than  on 
sandy  soils.  In  tests  made  it  appears  that  about  13%  of  moisture  is 
needed  in  these  soils  before  ordinary  crops  can  utilize  any  for  their 
use.  In  sandy  loam  7%  is  sufficient.  The  safest  way  to  judge  when 
land  needs  irrigating  is  to  dig  down  at  frequent  intervals  to  deter- 
mine roughly  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  by  pressing  it  in  the 
hand.  Another  convenient  method  is  by  using  a  soil  auger.  A  more 
accurate  test  of  seepage  from  furrows  can  be  made  by  digging  a 
trench  five  to  six  feet  deep  and  setting  a  perforated  basin  of  water 
near  the  rim,  so  that  water  can  leak  out  gradually  and  soak  into  the 
soil.    The  depth  of  penetration  can  be  noted  on  the  wall  of  the  trench. 

Ranchers  in  the  Imperial  Valley  sometimes  forget  that  there  is  no 
ground  water  on  which  to  depend  and  consequently  all  the  water  must 
come  from  the  ditch.  Mistakes  are  often  made  because  the  soil  con- 
ditions are  not  investigated  and  this  is  especially  true  of  persons  com- 
ing from  other  parts  of  the  State  where  sub-irrigation  may  be  counted 
on.  In  one  case  which  recently  came  to  our  notice,  a  large  vineyard 
was  dying  in  spots,  the  owner  thinking  that  some  disease  had  attacked 
his  vines.  Upon  examination,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  soil  be- 
low twelve  inches  wTas  in  a  dust  dry  condition  and  the  vine  roots  were 
confined  largely  to  the  surface  stratum.  Thorough  irrigation  in  deeper 
furrows  with  a  small  stream  running  for  a  much  longer  time  wet  the 
soil  deeply  and  restored  the  vineyard.  Good  results  will  undoubtedly 
be  secured  by  using  furrows  from  8  inches  to  12  inches  deep,  as  the 
water  would  soak  in  deeper  and  the  loss  through  surface  evaporation 
would  be  greatly  lessened. 

But  while  irrigation  is  the  all  important  operation  in  the  Valley,  it 
may  easily  be  overdone.  Plants  may  be  drowned  out  as  well  as  dried 
out,  hence  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  an  excess  of  water  to  collect. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  light  soils  which  overlie  heavy  clay  where 
percolation  is  slow.  In  tests  made  on  some  soils  of  this  nature  it  was 
found  that  the  soil  above  the  clay  was  nearly  saturated,  but  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  general  ground  water  level  at  present  prevents,  in  most 
cases,  a  rapid  saturation  of  the  soil. 


162  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

If  the  soil  be  oversaturated,  however,  not  only  will  the  excess  of 
water  be  detrimental,  but  there  is  almost  sure  to  be  a  rise  of  alkali  from 
below  forming  an  accumulation  of  salts  near  the  surface.  Wherever 
water  accumulates  and  stands  on  the  surface  at  the  lower  side  of  the 
field,  outlets  should  by  all  means  be  put  in  to  carry  the  water  into 
some  lower  ditch.  Such  outlets  if  carried  under  the  roads  would  ef- 
fectually put  a  stop  to  much  of  the  accidental  road  flooding  which  has 
proved  such  a  nuisance  in  the  past. 


Fig.  11. — V-shaped  crowder  used  for  cleaning  the  silt  out  of  lateral  canals. 

The  methods  of  applying  the  water  are  much  the  same  as  in  other 
irrigated  sections.  The  land  must,  of  course,  be  properly  leveled  and 
this,  in  the  case  of  dune  sand  areas,  sometimes  entails  considerable  ex- 
pense. It  is  customary  to  plant  newly  leveled  land  to  barley  in  order 
to  have  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  flow  of  the  water  for  one  year 
and  correct  any  unequalities  before  a  permanent  crop  such  as  alfalfa 
is  planted.  While  flooding  is,  of  course,  the  only  practical  way  of  ir- 
rigating grain  or  alfalfa,  it  is  less  efficient  than  furrow  irrigation  for 
the  reason  that  when  the  entire  surface  of  the  soil  is  covered  with 
water,  the  air  in  the  soil  does  not  escape  as  readily  as  it  does  between 
the  furrows  in  furrow  irrigation,  and  consequently  tends  to  hold  the 
water  out.  Neither  can  flood  water  be  held  on  the  land  as  long  on  ac- 
count of  the  danger  of  injuring  the  plants  by  scalding.  After  irriga- 
tion the  evaporation  from  the  bare  surface  is  rapid.  The  loss  from 
evaporation  is  less  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  163 

If  a  silt  crust  has  been  formed  and  not  well  broken  up,  the  water  soaks 
through  slowly  and  consequently  the  irrigation,  although  apparently 
thorough  from  a  surface  view,  is  really  unsatisfactory.  Flooding  by 
the  use  of  borders  or  basins  should  be  used  where  alkali  shows  up  on 
the  ridges  in  previous  furrow  irrigation.  Flooding  will  wash  the  salts 
down  and  distribute  them  more  evenly  in  the  soil  and  if  the  sub-drain- 
age is  good  will  carry  the  salts  away  entirely. 

Furrow  irrigation  is  used  for  nearly  all  crops  other  than  alfalfa 
and  barley.  This  is  the  ideal  method  of  applying  water  under  or- 
dinary conditions,  as  it  adds  the  moisture  without  wetting  the  whole 
surface  and  without  allowing  the  water  to  come  into  close  contact  with 
the  plants.  It  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  deep  furrows 
will  distribute  the  water  more  evenly  and  more  quickly  than  shallow 
ones  and  less  surface  is  moistened.  A  small  stream  run  for  a  longer 
time  seems  to  give  better  results  than  a  larger  stream  for  a  shorter 
time.  The  length  of  the  irrigation,  however,  depends  upon  the  rate 
or  percolation,  which  can  only  be  determined  by  tests  in  each  case. 
When  furrows  are  far  apart,  as  is  the  case  in  many  vineyards,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  moisture  reaches  between  the  rows,  espe- 
cially on  the  harder  soils.  In  tests  made  on  loose  sandy  loam  five 
weeks  after  irrigation,  the  moisture  content  was  about  9%  greater 
underneath  the  furrow  than  in  the  row  at  the  same  depth.  In  harder 
soils  it  is  apt  to  fail  to  soak  through  and  meet  between  the  rows. 

GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  INSECT  PESTS  AND  DISEASES. 

It  would  seem  that  the  Imperial  Valley,  being  a  new  country  made 
up  entirely  of  reclaimed  desert,  presented  a  remarkable  opportunity 
for  the  development  of  an  agriculture  free  from  insect  pests  and  dis- 
eases. Kealizing  this,  an  efficient  county  horticultural  commission  was 
early  organized  and  has  done  good  work  in  inspecting  all  nursery  stock 
brought  into  the  valley.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  no  amount 
of  caution  will  suffice  to  exclude  all  of  the  undesirables.  The  codling 
moth  of  the  apple  and  pear,  for  instance,  is  brought  in  in  the  cracks 
and  corners  of  apple  boxes  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  till  the 
apple  and  pear  trees  will  have  to  be  sprayed  if  fruit  free  from  worms 
is  produced. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  scale  insects  which  are  disseminated  on  nur- 
sery stock  may  be  excluded  by  thorough  inspection  and  destruction  of 
all  infested  stock.  Thus  the  money  spent  for  inspection  work  may  be 
saved  to  the  county  hundreds  of  times  over  in  the  much  greater  profits 
resulting  from  clean  orchards.  Perhaps  the  most  damaging  group  of 
insects  in  the  valley  at  the  present  time  are  the  aphids  or  plant  lice. 


164  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

These  work  great  harm  to  the  cantaloupe  crop,  and  on  cabbages  and 
cauliflower  they  are  sometimes  serious  enough  to  turn  an  otherwise 
successful  crop  into  a  failure.  Several  species  of  thrip  have  caused 
damage  to  crops,  notably  alfalfa,  cotton,  and  onions.  The  grape-vine 
leaf  hoppers  appeared  in  1909  for  the  first  time  in  damaging  quantities. 
So  far  no  grape  phylloxera  is  known  in  the  valley  nor  any  of  the  Alor- 
hina  mutabilis  beetle  which  is  so  destructive  to  figs,  peaches  and  grapes 
in  Arizona. 

Among  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases  we  find  that  those  which 
attack  the  above-ground  parts  of  plants  are  few  and  do  but  little  dam- 
age. Parasites,  such  as  asparagus  rust,  celery  blight,  grape  mildew 
and  pear  blight  can  scarcely  endure  the  hot  sun  and  very  dry  air.  Soil 
fungi  and  bacteria  on  the  other  hand,  such  as  crown  gall  and  fusarium 
diseases  of  the  roots  of  plants  may  be  expected  to  become  unusually 
troublesome. 

The  most  important  pests  are  discussed  separately  under  each  crop. 

VABIETIES  BEST  ADAPTED  TO  THE  VALLEY. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  environmental  stimuli,  such  as  climate, 
soil,  elevation,  and  latitude,  react  very  differently  upon  different  va- 
rieties of  plants  and  it  follows  that  each  climatological  area  has  its 
own  set  of  varieties  which  thrive  and  produce  best  under  the  existing 
conditions.  One  important  phase  of  Experiment  Station  work  is  the 
testing  of  many  varieties  in  the  effort  to  determine  those  best  suited 
to  a  given  region.  In  the  Imperial  Valley  the  conditions  are  unique 
and  we  would  hardly  expect  to  find  a  large  number  of  varieties 
brought  in  from  other  regions  well  adapted  to  the  conditions.  It 
therefore  follows  that  in  the  Imperial  Valley  it  is  especially  important 
to  develop  local  varieties.  The  seeds  of  many  kinds  of  fruit  trees 
should  be  planted  and  the  seedlings  raised  to  fruiting  in  an  effort  to 
produce  new  varieties  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  region.  While  such 
work  falls  naturally  into  the  province  of  the  Experiment  Station,  it 
is  nevertheless  an  exceedingly  interesting  and  in  some  cases  profitable 
field  for  the  individual  who  has  a  taste  for  plant  breeding.  Volunteer 
seedlings  of  fruit  trees  appearing  about  the  home  grounds  should  be 
protected  until  fruit  is  produced  and  its  character  noted.  The  fruits 
which  offer  special  promise  to  the  investigator  along  these  lines  are 
dates,  figs,  peaches,  plums,  almonds,  apricots,  apples,  pears,  pomegran- 
ates and  perhaps  blackberries,  dewberries  and  strawberries.  Among 
the  ornamentals,  roses  and  oleanders  offer  an  interesting  and  promis- 
ing field  for  work. 


Bulletin  210.     IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  165 

DISCUSSION  OF  CROPS. 

(Arranged  Alphabetically.) 

ALFALFA. 

Alfalfa  is  at  present  and  probably  will  continue  to  be  one  of  the 
leading  crops  of  the  Imperial  Valley.  Originating  in  Persia  and 
Arabia  before  the  dawn  of  agricultural  history,  this  "Best  Fodder," 
as  the  Arabic  name  signifies,  has  been  associated  for  thousands  of  years 
with  the  hot  and  arid  countries  which  border  on  the  Mediterranean. 
On  this  account  the  extreme  climatic  conditions  of  Imperial  proved 
congenial  to  the  alfalfa  and  its  culture  proved  successful  from  the 
start.  The  dominance  of  this  plant  is  peculiarly  fortunate  for  the 
valley,  for  it  not  only  contributes  to  the  soil  nitrogen  gathered  from 
the  air  and  thus  supplies  a  serious  need;  but  it  sends  its  long  roots 
deep  into  the  soil,  puncturing  the  various  strata  of  clay  and  allow- 
ing more  water  and  air  to  enter  and  ameliorate  the  soil.  Alfalfa  is 
therefore  an  ideal  forerunner  for  the  more  delicate  crops,  such  as 
vegetables  and  fruits. 

The  common  variety  which  bears  no  particular  name,  but  which 
was  probably  originally  introduced  from  Chili,  seems  to  succeed  ad- 
mirably. The  Arabian  alfalfa  makes  a  much  faster  winter  growth 
and  is  preferred  for  dairy  cows  on  account  of  being  more  succulent. 
It  is  more  tender  to  frost,  however,  and  will  not  stand  heavy  pas- 
turing. 

Alfalfa  succeeds  on  a  wide  range  of  soils  but  produces  best  on  the 
soft  and  medium  hard  ground.  As  is  usually  the  case  in  arid  portions 
of  the  west,  the  soil  needs  no  inoculation  with  nitrogen  bacteria,  as  is 
necessary  in  humid  and  rainy  sections  of  the  eastern  states.  The  nec- 
essary bacteria  seem  to  exist  in  the  soil  already  for  the  nodules  on  the 
roots  usually  appear  without  previous  inoculation. 

Land  intended  for  alfalfa,  having  been  properly  leveled,  should 
be  plowed,  harrowed  and  irrigated  before  planting.  The  seed  should 
be  planted,  if  possible,  in  October  or  November,  in  order  that  the 
young  alfalfa  may  get  some  growth  before  sharp  frosts  begin.  If 
planted  in  the  spring  the  seedlings  usually  do  not  gain  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  the  hot  summer  well  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
irrigate  without  scalding  the  small  plants.  The  seed  is  usually  broad- 
casted, although  drilling  gives  slightly  better  results.  Experience  has 
shown  that  fifteen  pounds  of  seed  (from  12  to  20  pounds)  will  produce 
an  ideal  stand  which  is  defined  by  the  best  growers  as  being  from 


166  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

twenty  to  thirty  seedlings  to  the  square  foot,  depending  on  whether 
the  crop  is  to  be  pastured  or  cut  for  hay,  or  both.  When  broadcasted 
the  seed  is  lightly  harrowed  in,  the  object  being  to  cover  the  seed  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  inch.  Irrigation  should  follow  immediately  and 
in  case  a  dry  crust  forms  on  the  surface  before  the  plants  are  up,  it 
should  be  softened  by  another  light  irrigation.  Further  watering 
should  be  delayed  until  the  third  and,  if  possible,  the  fourth  leaf  has 
appeared  on  the  seedlings.  If  watered  before  this  the  deposition  of 
sediment  from  the  water  will  cover  the  plants  and  a  patchy  stand  will 
result.  Bare  spots,  are  at  once  occupied  by  weeds  which  injure  the 
quality  of  the  hay  and  render  the  field  objectionable  as  a  pasture, 
Nurse  crops  have  never  been  of  any  particular  value  in  Imperial  Val- 
ley and  most  of  the  alfalfa  is  planted  without  them.  Barley  is  often 
sown  in  old  alfalfa  fields  in  the  fall  to  supply  winter  feed. 

After  the  stand  is  well  established  cuttings  follow  about  twenty- 
six  days  apart.  Two  irrigations  are  usually  given  between  each 
cutting.  The  best  time  to  cut  alfalfa  for  hay  to  be  fed  to  milch  cows 
is  when  the  alfalfa  is  about  y1Q  in  bloom.  The  older  alfalfa,  cut 
when  the  field  is  in  full  bloom  or  when  the  pods  are  being  formed, 
makes  good  feed  for  horses.  The  leaves,  which  contain  the  best  part 
of  the  crop,  shatter  badly  when  the  hay  is  cut  late  and  the  hay  does 
not  contain  as  much  protein  at  that  period.  The  hay  is  often  cut  in 
the  forenoon,  raked  in  the  afternoon  and  stacked  the  next  day.  Con- 
siderable loss  is  incurred  from  bleaching  and  excessive  drying  if  al- 
lowed to  stay  in  the  field  too  long.  The  practice  of  pasturing  alfalfa, 
which  is  common  in  the  valley,  tends  to  lessen  the  yield  which  could 
be  obtained  if  cut  for  hay,  but  the  cost  for  labor  during  the  summer 
makes  the  increased  returns  questionable.  The  field  is  injured  by 
tramping,  weeds  are  scattered  rapidly  and  much  of  the  crop  is  lost 
through  waste.  A  better  way,  when  possible,  is  to  cut  the  crop  for 
hay  and  feed  during  the  year,  pasturing  as  little  as  possible.  In  any 
case  the  cattle  should  be  rotated  from  field  to  field  to  give  the  alfalfa 
a  chance  to  recuperate. 

The  best  fields  yield  as  high  as  two  tons  in  a  single  cutting,  while 
the  average  is  about  three-fourths  of  a  ton,  or  the  same  as  the  general 
average  for  the  State.  The  total  yield,  however,  is  much  greater  than 
in  most  other  alfalfa  sections  on  account  of  the  unusually  long  season. 
The  first  hay  is  cut  in  the  latter  part  of  April  or  in  the  early  part  of 
May  and  the  cuttings  follow  from  four  to  six  weeks  apart,  giving  from 
five  to  eight  cuttings  per  year. 

During  August  the  alfalfa  ceases  to  grow  as  vigorously  as  during 


BULLETIN   210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  167 

the  cooler  weather  and  in  winter  remains  practically  dormant  for  three 
to  four  months,  depending  upon  the  season  and  the  time  of  irrigation. 
It  has  become  a  common  practice  to  allow  the  alfalfa  to  dry  up  in 
August  because  of  its  slow  growth  at  that  time,  and  because  of  the 
injury  done  by  the  larva  of  the  yellow  butterfly.  Frost  is  never  severe 
enough  to  do  any  damage  beyond  nipping  the  tender  parts  of  the 
slight  winter  growth.  When  this  does  occur  the  field  should  be  cut  to 
allow  the  new  growth  to  come  more  quickly. 

It  costs  from  three  to  four  dollars  to  produce  a  ton  of  hay,  the 
average  price  obtained  on  the  market  is  six  to  seven  dollars.  Baling 
costs  two  dollars  per  ton.  The  loose  hay  can  be  sold  to  an  alfalfa  meal 
mill.  The  alfalfa  meal  may  be  secured  for  $13.50  per  ton.  Feeding 
the  hay  is,  of  course,  the  most  profitable  method  of  handling  the  crop, 
as  all  kinds  of  live  stock  do  well  on  this  feed. 

Discing  or  renovating  alfalfa  fields  which  have  become  unprofit- 
able is  not  as  common  as  it  should  be.  The  fields,  especially  when  pas- 
tured, should  be  renovated  in  the  fall  or  winter  and  several  times  dur- 
ing summer.  This  is  done  by  special  spike-toothed  disc  harrows.  Or- 
dinary disc  harrows  are  often  used,  set  at  a  slight  angle  so  as  to  split 
the  crowns  but  not  cut  them  entirely  off.  Wherever  discing  is  prac- 
tised the  results  are  uniformly  better.  This  discing  breaks  up  and 
loosens  the  silt  crust  and  establishes  a  mulch  which  allows  air  and 
water  to  penetrate  the  soil  more  readily.  Some  weeds  also  are  de- 
stroyed and  some  insects  killed. 

So  far,  little  effort  has  been  made  to  harvest  alfalfa  seed,  although 
conditions  are  very  favorable.  Several  failures  have  been  reported, 
while  some  good  yields  have  been  secured.  The  treatment  of  the  al- 
falfa, especially  regarding  irrigation,  is  probably  the  cause  of  past 
failures.  In  Arizona  where  conditions  are  similar,  the  yield  varies 
from  200  to  900  pounds  per  acre.  The  second  cutting  gives  the  best 
returns.  Nine  to  ten  weeks  will  mature  a  crop.  Old  well  established 
alfalfa  fields  yield  the  best  and  largest  amount  of  seed.  The  crop 
should  not  be  given  as  much  water  as  when  cut  for  hay,  as  short,  stiff 
straw  gives  the  best  returns.  Water  should  never  be  put  on  when  the 
alfalfa  is  in  full  bloom,  but  it  is  good  practice  to  apply  water  just 
before  the  alfalfa  is  in  bloom  and  again  later  on  while  the  pods  are 
forming.  No  rains  occur  which  would  spoil  the  seed,  this  being  a 
great  advantage  over  more  humid  sections. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — Perhaps  the  most  serious  enemy  to  alfalfa 
in  the  Imperial  Valley  is  a  green  caterpillar,  the  larva  of  a  yellow 
butterfly,  Colias  eury theme.     This  pest  is  becoming  quite  serious  and 


168  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

often  destroys  from  one  to  two  cuttings  each  year.  This  year  an  as 
yet  unidentified  bacterial  disease  has  killed  at  least  85%  of  the  cater- 
pillars during  July,  damage  to  the  alfalfa  after  this  date  being  slight. 
It  is  thought  that  the  presence  of  abundant  irrigation  water  in  some 
way  increases  the  fatality  of  this  disease.  A  Tachinid  fly  also  attacks 
a  certain  percentage  of  the  caterpillars,  but  does  not  seem  to  greatly 
lessen  their  numbers.  Spraying  or  other  ordinary  combative  measures 
are,  of  course,  impracticable.  A  study  of  the  development,  seasonal 
history  and  economic  importance  of  this  insect  is  now  being  worked 
out  by  V.  L.  Wildemuth,  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
W.  E.  Packard,  of  this  publication.  This  investigation  has  not  been 
completed,  but  judging  from  the  work  already  done  it  would  appear 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  caterpillars  can  be  killed  by  cutting  the 
second  crop  of  hay  earlier  and  shorter  than  is  the  general  practice, 
providing  this  is  followed  by  a  heavy  irrigation  with  a  large  head  of 
water,  thus  drowning  the  caterpillars,  or  by  delaying  irrigation  for  a 
few  days,  thus  drying  the  field  and  starving  them.  By  doing  this 
many  of  the  larvae  would  be  prevented  from  maturing.  This  would, 
of  course,  lessen  the  number  of  eggs  laid  and  the  third  brood  would  be 
reduced  accordingly,  this  being  the  brood  which  does  the  greatest 
damage.  Close  and  clean  cutting  will  also  assist  in  reducing  the 
numbers  of  the  pest,  because  by  this  method  no  food  would  be  left 
for  those  caterpillars  present  to  feed  upon  and  consequently  starvation 
would  result.  This  statement,  however,  will  apply  only  to  Imperial 
Valley,  as  the  results  obtained  may  not  apply  to  other  sections. 

The  larva  of  a  moth  also  appears  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer 
and  does  considerable  damage.  This  worm  closely  resembles  the 
caterpillar  but  is  much  smaller  when  grown.  No  remedy  is  known 
for  this  pest.  The  leaf  hoppers  occur  in  large  numbers  but  so  far  have 
done  little  serious  damage.  A  black  species  of  thrips,  Anothrips  nigra 
Osb.,  are  numerous  on  the  blossoms  at  all  times  but  do  little  harm. 
The  black  spotted  thrip,  Heliothrips  facietus,  causes  an  appreciable 
loss  in  the  leaves  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  The  spotted 
character  of  many  of  the  leaves  is  caused  by  them.  No  remedy  is  as 
yet  known. 

The  Chalsid  fly  attacks  from  10%  to  40%  of  the  seeds  and  causes  a 
serious  loss.  By  fanning  the  seed,  however,  the  poor  ones  can  be  blown 
out  and  a  good  quality  of  seed  obtained.  The  same  trouble  occurs 
in  other  alfalfa  seed  sections,  but  nothing  has  been  done  to  remedy 
matters. 

Leaf  spot  attacks  a  good  many  leaves  but  is  not  generally  very 
damaging.    No  root  rot  has  been  reported  in  the  Valley  as  yet. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  169 

ALMOND. 
In  general,  the  climate  of  Imperial  County  is  well  adapted  to  al- 
monds. The  cool  winters  followed  by  warm,  sunny  and  dry  weather 
of  blooming  and  setting  time,  seem  to  supply  just  what  is  needed  for 
the  best  bearing  of  almonds.  To  be  sure,  an  occasional  late  spring 
frost  may  kill  the  young  fruits,  but  if  the  seeds  have  been  well  fertil- 
ized by  pollen  produced  during  dry,  sunny  weather  it  is  surprising 
how  much  cold  they  will  endure.  The  few  trees  which  have  been 
planted  in  the  Valley  have  grown  well,  and  although  yet  too  young 
to  judge  as  to  productiveness,  the  indications  are  good.  Older  trees 
in  the  similar  climate  of  Indio  have  produced  well.  A  Jordan  almond 
tree  near  Indio  is  said  to  have  yielded  24  pounds  which  were  harvested 
July  25,  1909,  the  tree  being  four  years  old.  When  the  writer  ex- 
amined this  tree  in  1910  it  was  again  loaded  with  fine  fruit.  Indica- 
tions so  far  point  to  the  following  varieties  as  most  suitable :  Texas 
Prolific,  IXL,  Nonpareil  and  Jordan.  The  Texas  Prolific  should  be 
planted  in  alternate  rows  with  the  other  kinds  to  insure  cross  pol- 
lination. 

As  regards  pests,  very  little  can  be  said  at  present.  The  red  spider 
may  be  expected,  but  is  easily  controlled  by  dusting  with  sulphur.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  crown  gall,  a  bacterial  disease  which  years 
ago  almost  destroyed  the  almond  industry  at  Glendale,  Arizona,  may 
become  serious  enough  to  cause  trouble  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  This 
Station  has  for  some  time  been  conducting  investigations  directed  to- 
ward the  control  of  this  disease.  While  it  is  wise  for  persons  who 
contemplate  almonds  on  a  commercial  scale  in  Imperial  to  keep  in 
mind  the  possibility  of  crown  gall,  it  would  be  foolish  to  allow  this 
consideration  to  influence  one  against  planting  a  few  trees  for  home 
use  and  local  markets. 

APPLE. 

The  climate  of  Imperial  is  not  well  suited  to  the  growing  of  apples. 
The  summer  heat,  together  with  the  very  dry  air  and  low  altitude, 
make  it  a  serious  question  whether  apples  will  ever  be  grown  on  any- 
thing like  a  commercial  scale.  Only  a  few  varieties  can  be  expected  to 
bear  well  and  the  trees  are  apt  to  fail  early  on  account  of  sunburn, 
root  rot  and  other  troubles. 

Still  a  small  quantity  of  fair  quality  apples  may  be  grown  for 
home  use.  Some  years  there  is  a  second  crop  of  indifferent  quality. 
It  is  very  important  to  head  the  trees  quite  low  and  to  prune  6o  as  to 
shade  the  trunks.  As  to  varieties,  the  Bismark  and  the  Red  Astrachan 
have  been  reported  as  doing  well,  while  Arizona  experience  indicates 


170 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


that  Gravenstein,  Black  Ben  Davis  and  White  Winter  Pearmain  would 
be  promising  varieties  to  test.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  future 
local  seedlings  will  be  developed  which  will  be  far  better  adapted  to  the 
climate  than  any  of  the  above  mentioned  varieties. 

APRICOT. 

Of  all  deciduous  fruits,  probably  none  are  more  at  home  in  the 
climate  of  Imperial  Valley  than  the  apricot.  The  crisp,  sunny  winters 
and  hot,  dry  summers  seem  to  furnish  just  the  conditions  needed  by 


Fig.  12. — Newcastle  apricots  with  cantaloupes  between.  Trees  cut  back 
to  24  inches  from  ground  in  February;  photo  taken  on  June  17th, 
following. 


this  fruit.  Of  course  an  unusually  late  frost  may  occasionally  kill  the 
blossoms  of  the  Newcastle,  but  this  is  the  exception  rather  than  the 
rule.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  acreage  planted  in  Imperial  Valley 
is  much  larger  than  that  of  any  other  tree  fruit,  there  being  30,000 
trees  at  present  growing  in  the  county.  Wherever  irrigation  and  cul- 
tivation have  been  attended  to  with  even  moderate  care,  the  trees  have 
made  a  fine  growth  and  are  bearing  heavily.  In  some  cases  the  trees 
begin  to  bear  the  second  year.  Ripening,  as  they  do,  at  the  time  of 
year  when  the  danger  from  rain  is  slight  and  the  relative  humidity 
of  the  air  is  very  low,  the  alternative  of  drying  the  product  (in  case 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


171 


the  market  for  fresh  fruit  is  not  encouraging)  is  open  to  the  growers. 
There  is  usually  no  trouble,  however,  in  selling  the  early  varieties 
fresh,  for  they  ripen  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  in  the  San  Joa- 
quin Valley. 

Ripening  dates  for  five  of  the  principal  varieties  have  been  noted 
and  (with  some  variation  from  year  to  year),  are  approximately  as 
follows :  Newcastle,  April  20  to  30 ;  Royal,  May  5  to  15 ;  Blenheim, 
May  7  to  20 ;  Moorpark,  May  15  to  22 ;,  and  Hemskirk,  May  27  to  June 
5.  The  Newcastle  and  Royal  are  planted  to  a  much  larger  extent  than 
any  others.     The  Newcastle  being  the  earliest  to  mature  brings  high 


Fig.  13. — Apricot  trees  four  years  old,  Bixby  Ranch,  near  Imperial. 


prices,  but  is  a  notably  poor  shipper,  and  there  is  some  danger  of  the 
planting  of  this  variety  being  overdone.  A  new  variety  combining 
the  earliness  of  the  Newcastle  with  the  good  shipping  qualities  of  the 
Royal  is  much  to  be  desired. 

The  peach  is  probably  the  best  stock  for  the  apricot  in  Imperial 
Valley,  although  apricot  root  may  prove  equally  as  good.  It  is  very 
necessary  to  head  the  trees  low  to  prevent  sunburning  of  the  trunks. 
Irrigate  copiously  from  January  first  until  the  fruit  is  set.  Between 
that  time  and  harvest  water  should  be  given  sparingly,  with  thorough 
cultivation  between  irrigations.  Some  of  the  best  growers  prefer  to 
prune  twice  a  year,  once  in  January  to  shape  and  train  the  tree  and 
again  after  the  harvest  to  check  the  too  redundant  vegetative  growth. 


172  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ARTICHOKE. 

The  Globe  Artichoke  (Cynara  scolymus  L.),  is  a  large,  coarse 
growing,  hardy,  perennial  vegetable  which  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to 
Imperial  conditions.  It  has  been  so  little  grown  in  the  Valley  that 
data  concerning  its  productiveness  and  profitableness  is  lacking.  The 
plant  thrives  exceedingly,  however,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  this  may 
in  future  become  a  profitable  crop.  As  a  vegetable  it  is  consumed  in 
large  quantities  in  France  and  other  European  countries,  but  in  the 
United  States  it  is  but  little  known  and  the  market  is  very  limited. 

The  Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuberosus,  L.),  is  a  tall  grow- 
ing, sunflower-like  plant  which  bears  tubers  which  are  appreciated  by 
persons  coming  from  the  eastern  and  southern  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  plant  thrives  in  Imperial  and  seems  to  produce  a  heavy 
yield  of  tubers,  although  actual  records  of  yields  are  not  obtainable. 
Eaten  raw  or  made  into  pickles  the  tubers  would  be  a  valuable  addition 
to  the  products  of  the  home  garden.  The  plant  also  has  considerable 
value  as  a  heavy  producer  of  good  quality  hog  feed. 

ASPARAGUS. 

The  asparagus  plant  thrives  wonderfully  in  Imperial  Valley  and 
the  culture  of  this  vegetable  on  a  commercial  basis  has  so  far  proven 
quite  profitable.  There  is  no  cannery  in  the  valley,  as  better  prices 
can  be  obtained  by  shipping  the  entire  crop  in  the  fresh  state. 
The  crop  should  be  grown  on  a  soft,  sandy  soil  in  which  the  humus 
has  been  increased  by  the  application  of  stable  manure,  straw  or  the 
turning  under  of  a  heavy  crop  of  alfalfa.  Seed  is  planted  in  the  seed 
bed  in  April  and  the  plants  thinned  to  six  inches  in  the  row.  In  twelve 
months  the  plants  (male  plants  preferably)  are  selected  and  set  out 
in  the  permanent  field  in  rows  six  to  eight  feet  apart  and  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  feet  in  the  row.  If  the  crop  is  well  cultivated  and  irri- 
gated cutting  for  market  may  begin  in  the  fourth  year.  Cutting  be- 
gins about  February  15th  and  continues  for  about  sixty  days,  or  until 
the  price  falls  too  low  for  profit.  The  crop  is  irrigated  about  every 
four  weeks  after  cutting  until  fall,  when  it  is  allowed  to  go  dry.  The 
stalks  are  cut,  raked  and  burned  in  the  field  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
winter  and  the  soil  well  cultivated.  Water  to  start  the  spring  crop 
is  applied  about  the  first  or  second  week  in  January.  The  cost  of  cut- 
ting, bunching,  packing  and  hauling  varies  from  80  cents  to  $1.00  per 
crate.  The  yield  varies,  of  course,  but  some  of  the  best  fields  pro- 
duce one  hundred  24-pound  crates  per  acre.    Prices  vary  according  to 


Bulletin  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  173 


Fig.  14. — Asparagus  field  at  cutting  time. 


Fig.  15. — Recently  irrigated  asparagus  field  showing  the  silt  deposited  by 

the  water. 


174  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

the  season,  running  from  $2.50  to  $15.00  per  crate  in  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket. The  average  net  profit  per  crate  has  in  the  past  been  from  $1.50 
to  $1.75.  Profits  are  reduced  in  some  cases  by  heavy  losses  due  to 
poor  methods  of  packing  and  consequent  decay.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  best  prices  are  received  for  asparagus  about  three- 
fourths  green.  The  shoots  are  brought  to  the  packing  house  immedi- 
ately after  being  cut  and  placed  in  an  upright  position,  standing  in 
shallow  water.  The  heads  should  be  kept  dry  to  prevent  decay  in  ship- 
ping. For  long  distance  shipments  they  are  packed  in  moss  in  boxes 
each  containing  twelve  two-pound  bunches.  Icing  the  cars  has  proved 
necessary  and  at  present  several  growers  combine  their  product  in 
order  to  secure  car  load  rates  and  icing  facilities.  Conover's  Collosal, 
Palmetto,  and  Early  Argenteuil  are  the  standard  varieties.  So  far, 
neither  the  asparagus  rust  nor  insect  pests  have  been  troublesome. 

AUSTRALIAN  SALT  BUSH  (See  under  Salt  Bush.) 
AVOCADO. 
It  is  a  question  whether  avocadoes  can  be  grown  commercially  in 
the  arid  southwest.  The  frosts  will  probably  prove  too  severe  for  them. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  an  occasional  tree  may  be  successfully 
fruited  for  home  use  in  a  sheltered  yard  or  a  garden  where  protection 
may  be  given  with  a  tent  on  the  coldest  nights  of  winter.  Budded 
trees  are  much  better  than  seedlings. 

BANANA. 

Bananas  being  native  to  tropical  countries  which  enjoy  heavy  rain- 
fall, are  but  poorly  suited  to  Imperial  Valley.  Still  an  occasional 
plant  may  be  successfully  fruited  if  grown  along  a  pond  or  a  ditch 
where  its  roots  may  be  continually  in  reach  of  water.  Some  protec- 
tion from  frost  will  be  needed  in  the  winter  and  the  leaves  will  be 
badly  torn  to  pieces  unless  protected  from  the  wind. 

BAELEY  (  See  under  Grain.) 
BEANS. 
Beans  being  sensitive  to  the  dry  air  as  well  as  to  the  frost  are 
grown  with  some  difficulty.  A  spring  crop  of  bush  beans  planted  in 
late  March  will  often  produce  a  fair  crop  before  being  killed  by  the 
heat  of  June  or  July.  A  fall  crop  planted  in  early  September  will 
often  yield  satisfactorily,  provided  the  frosts  are  late.  Beans  planted 
in  spring  will  sometimes  live  through  the  summer  and  produce  well 


Bulletin  210.     IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


175 


in  the  fall,  although  fall  planted  beans  give  the  best  results.  In  gen- 
eral, the  crop  is  uncertain  and  is  grown  chiefly  for  home  use  and  local 
markets.  For  snap  beans  to  be  cooked  green,  the  earliest  maturing 
varieties  should  be  selected.  Little  accurate  information  as  to  the 
comparative  merits  of  different  varieties  is  available.  The  following, 
however,  may  be  expected  to  give  good  results:  Early  Pink,  Long 
Yellow  Six  Weeks,  Kentucky  Wonder,  Golden  Wax  and  Bush  Lima. 
The  Soy  Bean  is  well  suited  to  Imperial  conditions  and  should  be 
planted  extensively  as  a  green  manuring  crop  and  as  a  forage  and 


Fig.  16. — Soy  beans  growing  near  Brawley. 

grain  plant.  It  attains  a  height  of  two  and  one-half  feet  and  produces 
an  abundance  of  seed.  Being  a  legume  it  adds  to  the  soil  the  much 
needed  nitrogen.  It  thrives  during  the  hottest  weather  of  summer 
and  is  suited  to  follow  and  precede  winter  crops. 

Seed  may  be  planted  at  any  time  after  the  middle  of  April.  The 
seed  of  some  of  the  experimental  plantings  was  destroyed  by  the  larva 
of  a  small  beetle  (Vacusus  confinis)  before  germination,  but  other 
plantings  in  the  valley  have  done  very  well.  The  plant  will  endure  a 
little  frost  and  ripen  several  weeks  earlier  than  the  Cowpea,  thus  hav- 
ing a  wider  range  of  planting  time.  The  soy  bean  is  quite  drought 
resistant,  being  almost  equal  to  kafir  corn  in  this  respect. 

The  Velvet  Bean  has  been  tried  both  in  Arizona  and  Imperial 
Valley,  but  so  far  has  proved  a  failure. 


176  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BEETS. 

All  kinds  of  beets  do  well  in  the  valley  when  grown  during  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  year.  As  yet,  however,  none  have  been  produced 
on  a  commercial  scale.  Beets  are  sensitive  to  heat  and  are  somewhat 
stunted  by  sharp  frosts.  It  often  happens  that  beets  checked  in  growth 
by  frost  go  to  seed  at  the  approach  of  warm  spring  weather.  The 
Klein  Wanzlebener  and  the  Early  Blood  Turnip  are  the  varieties  com- 
monly planted.  The  seed  may  be  planted  either  between  the  15th  of 
September  and  the  15th  of  October  or  in  February.  They  do  fairly 
well  on  all  soils  but  give  best  results  on  the  medium  types.  On  hard 
soils  the  roots  are  apt  to  be  short  and  poorly  shaped  and  on  this  ac- 
count they  should  be  irrigated  often  enough  to  keep  the  soil  from 
baking  too  hard  about  the  roots.    Beets  are  fairly  resistant  to  alkali. 

Mangels  are  successfully  grown,  although  their  habit  of  standing 
higher  out  of  the  ground  makes  them  more  sensitive  to  heat. 

A  kind  of  beet  known  as  Swiss  Chard,  which  is  grown  as  a  salad 
plant  for  its  succulent  leaves,  thrives  and  produces  well  in  the  valley. 

Sugar  beets  have  been  tested  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil  in  the  val- 
ley by  Mr.  H.  Egge,  of  El  Centro,  and  have  proved  to  be  adapted  to 
the  locality  when  grown  during  the  cooler  parts  of  the  year.  Accord- 
ing to  his  results,  spring  planted  beets  were  a  failure,  the  best  month 
for  planting  being  November.  The  sugar  content  of  the  juice  in  the 
November  plantings  ran  as  high  as  20%,  the  average  being  from  13 
to  14%  in  the  beets.  The  ground  should  be  plowed  deeply,  cultivated, 
and  well  irrigated  before  planting.  The  best  method  tried  so  far  has 
been  to  furrow  out  the  field  eight  feet  apart  and  run  the  water  until 
the  soil  is  well  saturated,  then  level  and  cultivate  as  soon  as  as  the 
horses  can  get  on  the  land.  The  seed  should  be  drilled  in  rows  16  to 
18  inches  apart  and  later  thinned  to  6  to  8  inches  in  the  row.  Usually 
two  rows  are  planted  on  one  ridge. 

There  is  a  plan  at  present  to  begin  the  culture  of  sugar  beets  for 
shipment  to  the  factory  at  Glendale,  Arizona,  and  if  this  should  prove 
successful  there  is  the  possibility  of  a  factory  being  established  in 
the  valley.  The  beet  leaf  hopper  has  caused  some  blight  in  the  test 
plots  and  slight  damage  has  been  done  by  a  fungus.  A  small  undeter- 
mined beetle  has  caused  a  scarring  of  some  of  the  beets.  No  remedies 
for  these  insects  have  been  tried.  In  some  locations  beets  are  dam- 
aged by  the  spring  winds  and  windbreaks  would  be  advisable  in  such 
cases. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  177 

BEESEEM. 
This  is  a  forage  and  cover  crop  largely  grown  in  Egypt.  It  is  poorly 
suited  to  Imperial  Valley  because  it  is  sensitive  both  to  the  frosts  of 
winter  and  the  heat  of  summer.  It  is  therefore  unable  to  reach  its 
full  development.  If  planted  about  the  first  of  September  it  often 
gains  sufficient  strength  for  the  roots  to  go  through  the  winter  and  to 
make  some  growth  in  spring.  On  account  of  its  limitations,  the  crop 
is  not  recommended  for  general  planting. 

BLACKBEEEY. 

Some  varieties  of  blackberries  grow  thriftily  and  produce  very 
well  wrhen  given  proper  care.  They  seem  to  delight  in  the  heat  of 
summer  and  produce  a  tremendous  growth  of  canes  which  should  be 
cut  back  considerably  after  the  crop  is  harvested.  They  require  an 
abundance  of  wrater.  Only  small  patches  of  blackberries  have  so  far 
been  attempted,  but  some  of  these  have  proven  quite  profitable.  The 
Crandall's  Early  or  California  Everbearing  is  perhaps  the  most  suc- 
cessful variety  so  far  tested. 

Loganberries  do  not  seem  so  well  suited  to  the  climate  as  black- 
berries and  are  grown  with  difficulty. 

BEOOM  CORN    (See  under  Sorghum) 
BUCKWHEAT. 
This  plant  is  suited  to  the  cool,  moist  regions  in  the  east  and  is 
therefore  quite  out  of  place  in  Imperial  Valley.    It  is  injured  both  by 
the  cold  and  heat  and  therefore  has  small  opportunity  to  mature. 

CABBAGE. 
The  cabbage  belongs  to  that  class  of  plants  which  will  endure  the 
winters  but  succumbs  to  the  heat  of  summer.  Cabbages  are  therefore 
grown  in  the  winter  and  succeed  admirably.  They  should  be  planted 
on  soft  soil.  An  application  of  stable  manure  will  greatly  increase  the 
yield.  The  seeds  should  be  planted  in  succession  from  August  to 
October  and  the  plants  raised  under  the  partial  shade  of  a  lath  shelter. 
In  some  cases  good  results  have  been  secured  by  planting  the  seed 
directly  in  the  field.  They  may  be  set  in  the  field  in  October  and  No- 
vember. A  constant  and  plentiful  water  supply  is  essential.  The 
crop  is  harvested  from  February  to  late  in  May  and  shipped  mostly 
to  Los  Angeles.  Of  late  years  an  aphid,  known  as  the  cabbage  louse, 
has  been  very  destructive  and  proves  a  difficult  pest  to  overcome.  It 
has  been  found  that  by  setting  out  very  large  plants  in  October  and 


178  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

encouraging  a  rapid  growth  many  of  the  plants  will  succeed  in  spite 
of  the  lice.  Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion,  soap  solution,  or  with  a 
tobacco  spray  gives  good  results  if  practised  in  time.  Burning  infested 
plants  aids  in  preventing  the  spread  of  the  pest.  Grasshoppers  do 
some  damage  to  plants  set  before  the  middle  of  September.  A  small 
worm  known  as  the  cabbage  plusia  is  common  in  the  spring  and  works 
some  damage.  The  sprays  mentioned  above  are  recommended  for 
this  worm. 

All  of  the  varieties  so  far  tested  in  the  valley  have  been  reported 
as  satisfactory. 

CANTALOUPE    (See  under  MusTcmelon.) 
CAEEOT. 

Carrots  grow  well  and  yield  heavy  crops  when  grown  in  the  soft 
land  of  Imperial  Valley.  They  should  be  planted  in  the  fall  and 
grown  during  winter. 

CASSAVA. 

Very  little  data  on  Cassava  is  available.  Some  attempts  have  been 
made  to  grow  the  plant  in  the  valley  but  while  the  Cassava  is  a  tropi- 
cal plant,  it  does  not  endure  well  the  severe  dryness  of  the  air  nor  the 
frosts  of  winter.  It  is  possible  that  more  hardy  varieties  may  be  in- 
troduced which  would  make  a  successful  growth  under  Imperial  Val- 
ley conditions. 

CASTOE  BEAN. 

The  Castor  plant  seems  peculiarly  suited  to  the  climatic  and  soil 
conditions  of  the  southwest  in  general,  and  to  the  Imperial  Valley  in 
particular.  In  fact,  the  Castor  bean  is  typical  of  the  region.  The 
plants  live  to  a  great  age  and  if  properly  pruned  attain  the  propor- 
tions of  small  trees.  The  quick  growth  and  large  leaf  area  of  these 
plants  make  them  very  valuable  around  the  house  for  screening  out- 
buildings and  for  cutting  off  objectionable  views.  They  are  very 
resistant  to  alkali  and  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  provided 
water  is  supplied  them.  They  are  very  suitable  for  securing  a  quick 
and  temporary  shade  in  poultry  yards  while  permanent  shade  trees 
are  growing. 

Seed  planted  in  April  will  often  produce  plants  ten  feet  tall  by 
October.  Some  of  the  large  leaves  are  lost  during  the  frosts  of  winter 
but  the  shoots  are  seldom  killed  back  more  than  a  few  feet,  active 
growth  beginning  again  with  the  first  warm  weather  of  spring. 

Heavy  crops  of  seed  are  produced  but  the  labor  involved  in  har- 
vesting them  and  the  low  price  offered  make  the  crop  unprofitable  to 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  179 

grow  on  a  commercial  scale  for  the  oil.  Some  people  object  to  them 
on  the  ground  that  the  seed  are  poisonous  and  may  be  eaten  by  chil- 
dren, but  it  may  be  said  on  the  other  hand  that  the  child  who  relishes 
these  seeds  is  a  rarity  indeed! 

CAULIFLOWEK. 

We  have  been  unable  so  far  to  obtain  much  data  on  Cauliflower  in 
the  Imperial  Valley.  Its  culture  has  not  yet  been  attempted  on  a 
commercial  scale.  Judging  from  a  few  plants  raised  in  home  gar- 
dens, we  would  expect  cauliflower  to  produce  well  if  planted  in  the 
fall  and  treated  like  cabbage.  Being  more  sensitive  to  unfavorable 
conditions  than  cabbage,  its  successful  culture  requires  more  skill. 
Some  persons  state  that  they  get  better  results  with  cauliflower  by 
planting  the  seed  in  the  permanent  rows  and  not  transplanting.  It  is 
subject  to  the  same  plant  lice  as  cabbage.  The  Early  Snowball  variety 
is  said  to  have  produced  fine  heads.  Very  likely  other  varieties  would 
do  equally  well. 

CELERY. 

For  the  best  development  of  the  celery  plant,  a  cool  moist  climate 
is  required.  For  this  reason  celery  will  never  be  grown  on  a  commer- 
cial scale  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  Those  who  wish  to  produce  a  small 
amount  of  celery  for  home  use  may  do  so,  however,  by  planting  the 
seed  in  January  or  February  in  a  shaded  bed  in  a  cool  place  where 
the  soil  may  be  kept  constantly  moist.  The  plants  may  be  set  out  in 
the  garden  in  September  or  October  and  shaded  with  brush  until  they 
obtain  a  start.  The  crop  should  be  ready  to  harvest  in  December  and 
January. 

CHERRY. 

All  varieties  of  cherries  are  so  unsuited  to  the  climatic  conditions 
of  the  region  that  they  are  out  of  the  question  as  a  commercial  crop. 
Some  few  trees  of  different  varieties  have  been  planted  and  they  have 
made  some  growth  but  little  or  no  fruit  has  been  produced. 

CITRON. 

The  Citron  of  Commerce  is  a  citrus  fruit  which  is  too  tender  to 
frost  for  the  Imperial  Valley,  except  perhaps  in  the  most  protected 
places.  Candied  citron  has  in  the  past  been  produced  more  cheaply 
in  Europe  than  in  this  country,  hence,  with  possibly  one  exception, 
citron  trees  are  grown  in  California  mostly  as  curiosities. 


180  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

CLOVERS. 

As  alfalfa  takes  the  place  of  all  clovers  except  perhaps  for  lawns 
and  cover  crops,  there  is  no  particular  reason  for  growing  the  clovers 
except  for  these  purposes.  The  intense  dry  heat  of  summer  injures 
all  the  clovers  which  have  been  so  far  tried  in  the  valley. 

White  Clover  if  given  plenty  of  water  makes  a  fair  lawn  but  does 
not  compare  with  lippia  in  value  for  this  purpose. 

Burr  Clover  grows  well  during  the  winter  but  does  not  make 
enough  tonnage  to  warrant  its  use  as  a  cover  crop. 

Sour  Clover  (Melilotus  indica)  makes  a  vigorous  growth  between 
early  fall  and  late  spring  and  is  one  of  the  best  known  plants  to  date 
for  orchard  cover  crops  and  green  manuring. 

COEN    {Maize  or  Indian  Corn.) 

A  number  of  varieties  of  field  corn  have  been  tested  in  the  valley 
with  only  partial  success.  Most  of  the  corn  brought  from  the  east 
has  not  proven  to  be  adapted  to  this  climate,  but  certain  varieties, 
namely  Mexican  June  and  Hickory  King,  have  produced  fair  yields, 
from  40  to  50  bushels  being  sometimes  secured.  The  stalks  often  grow 
very  high,  especially  when  over-irrigated,  and  usually  have  two  ears 
to  the  stalk,  which  is  considered  to  be  an  average.  The  Arizona  Ex- 
periment Station  reports6  that  certain  varieties  of  flint  corn,  especially 
the  Kellogg  and  Blue  Squaw,  from  western  Kansas,  have  done  well 
under  Arizona  conditions.  The  corn  produced  is  of  good  quality  and 
the  ears  are  of  fair  size  and  well  filled,  provided  the  seed  is  planted 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  There  is  a  big  opportunity  for  de- 
veloping a  variety  of  corn  which  will  be  better  adapted  to  this  region 
than  any  now  grown. 

The  hot  dry  weather  during  the  late  spring  and  early  summer  pre- 
vents proper  pollination,  as  the  silk  dries  up  before  it  is  receptive.  On 
this  account,  if  planted  in  the  spring,  the  cobs  will  be  barren  or  nearly 
so.  If  planted  during  the  latter  part  of  July  or  even  the  first  part 
of  August  the  corn  escapes  the  period  of  driest  air  and  will  mature  be- 
fore damaging  frosts  occur.  The  corn  in  this  way  can  follow  canta- 
loupes, barley  or  other  spring  crops.  If  planted  by  the  first  of  August, 
roasting  ears  may  be  plucked  by  the  last  of  September.  The  seed 
is  drilled  in  rows  from  3  to  3%  feet  apart  and  not  checked  as  in  the 
east.  The  soil  is  well  soaked  before  planting  and  another  irrigation 
given  after  seeding.     Subsequent  irrigations  follow  when  needed  to 


o  Bull.  54,  Ariz.  Exp.  Station. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  181 

i 

keep  the  soil  in  a  good  moist  condition.  A  cultivation  should  follow 
each  irrigation.  Three  or  four  good  irrigations  will  often  mature  a 
crop.    Furrow  irrigation  is  much  preferred  to  flooding. 

A  black  flea  beetle  injures  the  young  corn  in  the  spring,  but  if  the 
seed  is  planted  in  the  latter  part  of  July,  as  is  the  only  safe  method, 
these  beetles  will  be  avoided.  The  corn  ear  worm  does  some  damage 
to  a  good  deal  of  the  corn,  especially  to  the  eastern  varieties  which 
have  been  tried.  The  Mexican  June  corn  has  a  thick  and  tightly 
wrapped  husk  which  prevents  much  damage  to  that  variety.  The 
Mexican  June  is,  however,  difficult  to  husk  on  this  account. 

Sweet  Corn. — The  field  corn  raised  is  often  used  as  sweet  corn  and 
if  picked  at  the  right  time  is  fairly  good.  Most  varieties  of  sweet  corn 
will  grow  well  if  planted  in  the  latter  part  of  July,  as  recommended 
for  field  corn,  but  much  of  it  is  attacked  by  the  corn  ear  worm. 

Pop  Corn. — Pop  corn  has  been  tried  on  a  limited  scale  and  has  pro- 
duced well.  The  general  treatment  for  this  corn  is  the  same  as  for 
field  corn.  The  Pearl  and  Rice  have  both  made  good  growth,  the  Rice 
giving  slightly  better  results. 

COTTON. 

It  has  been  long  known  that  parts  of  southern  California  were  well 
adapted  to  cotton  culture  but  on  account  of  the  unfavorable  economic 
conditions  no  commercial  crops  were  produced  until  1909,  when  1,500 
acres  were  planted  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  The  results  secured  were 
so  encouraging  that  15,000  acres  were  planted  in  1910.  The 
climate  of  this  section  is  especially  adapted  to  the  growing  of  cotton, 
for  the  long  growing  season  allows  many  bolls  to  mature,  the  almost 
total  absence  of  rain  storms  in  the  fall  allows  the  crop  to  be  harvested 
in  first  class  condition  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  fewer  squares 
drop  during  the  growing  season,  thus  increasing  the  number  of  bolls 
set.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  much  greater  yields  can  be  obtained 
under  irrigation,  with  the  favorable  climatic  conditions  of  the  Imperial 
Valley,  than  in  the  south  where  moisture  is  supplied  by  rainfall  only. 


«t«Ht*  *►* 


Fig.  17. — Variation  in  size  of  cotton  bolls,  each  from  a  different  plant  of 
same  variety,  showing  great  need  of  systematic  selection  of  seed. 


182 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  best  cotton  has  been  grown  on  the  medium  hard  soils.  The 
hard  soil  did  not  give  good  results  in  many  cases  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty in  properly  preparing  the  seed  bed  and  also  because  proper  root 
development  was  retarded  by  the  lack  of  thorough  irrigation.  This 
statement,  however,  does  not  apply  to  all  hard  soils.  The  experience 
varies  greatly  in  regard  to  the  soft  soil,  some  excellent  results  being 
reported  from  some  farms  and  some  failures  from  others.     The  lack 


Fig.  18. — Imperial  Valley  cotton  field. 


of  nitrogen  in  some  of  the  soft  soils,  together  with  the  damage  caused 
by  a  temporary  water  shortage,  undoubtedly  accounts  for  many  of  the 
partial  failures.  Cotton  makes  a  heavy  demand  on  the  nitrogen  in 
the  soil,  and  if  continuous  crops  are  grown  without  rotation  with  some 
leguminous  crop  and  the  seed  sold  off  the  land,  it  is  certain  that  in  a 
few  years  this  element  will  have  to  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
mercial fertilizer. 

Cotton  culture  under  irrigation  has  proved  a  new  thing  for  Ameri- 
can planters,  so  they  have  had  to  look  to  Egypt  for  methods  of  culture, 
rather  than  continue  those  common  in  the  southern  States.  The  best 
methods  of  irrigation  and  general  treatment  of  this  crop  are  there- 
fore uncertain  and  good  results  should  increase  with  improvement  in 
this  line. 

The  time  of  planting  at  present  varies  from  the  cessation  of  frost 
until  the  first  part  of  July,  the  best  time  being  between  March  15th  and 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  183 

April  15th.  Early  planted  cotton  is  the  most  profitable,  as  it  has  the 
advantage  of  a  longer  season  of  growth  and  the  first  crop  is  ready  to 
pick  when  pickers  are  less  in  demand. 

In  preparation  for  the  seed,  the  land  is  generally  plowed,  har- 
rowed and  furrowed  out  four  feet  apart.  Water  is  then  run  in  the 
furrows  until  it  soaks  through  and  meets  between  the  furrows.  As 
soon  as  dry  enough  to  work,  the  land  is  again  harrowed  to  form  as 
much  of  a  mulch  as  possible,  and  the  seed  planted  on  the  ridges  with 
the  usual  one-horse  cotton  drill.  Twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  planted 
per  acre.  This  is  sometimes  followed  by  a  light  irrigation  and  as  soon 
as  the  plants  are  well  started  they  are  thinned  to  from  18  to  24  inches 
in  the  row.  Cultivation  should  follow  and  should  be  carried  on  as 
continuously  as  possible.  No  water  should  be  applied  until  the  plants 
show  a  need,  as  much  as  possible  having  been  put  into  the  soil  before 
planting.  The  best  cotton  has  been  produced  where  as  little  water  as 
possible  was  applied  after  seeding,  until  the  plants  get  well  started. 
After  this,  water  is  applied  often  enough  to  maintain  uniform  mois- 
ture conditions  in  the  soil.  This  is  important  for  the  cotton  plant  is 
impatient  of  drouth.  Furrow  irrigation  is  much  more  efficient  than 
flooding.  Each  irrigation  should  be  followed  by  a  shallow  cultivation, 
deep  enough  to  form  a  good  mulch  but  not  deep  enough  to  injure  the 
surface  roots. 

Level  planting  has  proved  very  successful  in  some  cases,  especially 
on  soft  soil.  The  land  is  flooded  and  thoroughly  harrowed  and  the 
seed  planted  before  furrowing.  The  mulch  thus  obtained  prevents 
excessive  evaporation  and  the  young  plants  do  not  require  irrigation 
so  soon.  When  water  is  needed  the  field  is  furrowed.  This  reduces  the 
expense  and  partially  prevents  the  rise  of  alkali  on  the  ridges.  In  any 
case  the  land  should  be  leveled  and  flooded  after  the  stalks  have  been 
removed,  to  distribute  the  salts  through  the  soil. 

The  yields  have  varied  widely  in  different  fields  and  under  different 
methods  of  treatment,  but  from  a  bale  to  a  bale  and  a  half,  some  cases 
two  bales,  have  been  produced  per  acre  on  the  fields  that  have  been 
well  handled.  In  order  to  maintain  the  standard  and  yield  of  the 
cotton  grown  in  this  section,  much  more  attention  must  be  given  to 
seed  selection.  The  cotton  now  largely  grown  in  the  valley  is  un- 
doubtedly superior  to  any  of  the  other  varieties  tested,  and  careful 
seed  selection  is  far  more  important  than  the  trying  of  new  varieties. 
If  seed  is  carefully  selected,  not  only  the  yield  but  the  quality  should 
be  improved  upon. 

The  variety  most  generally  grown  is  the  Mebane  Triumph,  a  big 


184  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

boll,  storm  proof,  upland  cotton  from  Texas.  A  large  number  of 
varieties  has  been  tried,  but  so  far  none  have  proved  equal  to  the 
Mebane  Triumph.  Several  varieties  of  long  staple  upland  cotton  have 
been  tried  but  there  is  a  question  whether  or  not  this  cotton  will  be 
successful  on  a  commercial  scale.  Sea  Island  cotton  has  been  tried 
experimentally,  but  the  bolls  do  not  open  well.  A  great  deal  has  been 
done  by  the  agents  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  in  testing 
Egyptian  cotton  in  an  effort  to  establish  this  industry  in  the  United 


Fig.  19. — Cotton  pickers  at  work. 

States.  Yields  of  over  a  bale  to  the  acre  have  been  secured.  The  qual- 
ity and  yield  have  been  improved  greatly  by  selection.  It  is  hoped 
that  in  the  near  future  Egyptian  cotton  can  be  made  to  yield  crops 
profitable  to  the  planters,  as  the  Arid  Southwest  is  the  only  part  of 
the  United  States  in  which  superior  quality,  long  staple  Egyptian 
cotton  can  be  raised  successfully. 

The  fact  that  the  valley  is  free  from  boll  weevil  is,  of  course,  a  big 
advantage  and  every  effort  is  being  put  forth  by  the  County  Horti- 
cultural Commission  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  this  insect. 

A  thrip  (Heliothrips  facietus)  does  some  damage  to  the  leaves, 
causing  a  part  of  them  to  turn  brown  and  fall.  A  new  and  peculiar 
bacterial  or  physiological  disease  affects  the  seed  and  a  part  of  the  lint 
while  the  bolls  are  yet  green.  This  disease  is  undoubtedly  not  traceable 
to  the  water  shortage,  as  is  generally  supposed.  These  troubles  will 
be  investigated  by  this  Station  as  soon  as  facilities  are  available. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  MANUAL.  185 

COWPEAS. 
Cowpeas  are  well  adapted  to  this  climate,  making  a  vigorous  growth 
during  the  hottest  parts  of  the  year.  Several  varieties  have  been  tried 
out  on  the  medium  hard  soil  and  all  made  a  fairly  good  growth.  Some 
varieties,  namely  the  Whippoorwill,  New  Era,  Clay  and  Early  Ram's 
Horn,  produced  the  greatest  amount  of  green  matter  per  acre  and 
should  be  planted  extensively  in  rotation  with  other  annuals  as  a  green 
manurial  crop,  or  used  as  a  cover  crop  in  the  orchards.  Alfalfa,  how- 
ever, will  give  better  results  as  a  green  manure  crop  when  it  is  pos- 
sible to  let  it  get  a  sufficient  growth  before  plowing  under.  When  a 
quick  growing  summer  cover  crop  is  needed  the  cowpeas  will  do  well, 
especially  when  plenty  of  water  is  available.  They  are  planted  any 
time  after  April  1st,  in  rows  2%  to  3  feet  apart  and  2  to  4  inches  in 
the  row,  on  either  the  medium  hard  or  soft  soils. 

CUCUMBEE. 
Cucumbers  grow  and  produce  well  when  planted  either  in  the 
spring  or  fall.  If  well  matured  the  vines  may  live  through  the  hot 
weather  of  summer,  although  they  produce  very  little  good  fruit  dur- 
ing midsummer.  The  spring  crop  is  planted  during  March,  while  the 
fall  crop  should  be  sown  in  September.  The  White  Spine  is  a  standard 
variety  which  produces  well. 

CURRANT   (Bibes  rubrum.) 

Currants  will  not  thrive  in  the  hot  dry  climate  of  Imperial  Valley. 
They  reach  their  highest  development  in  cool,  moist  localities,  for  the 
wild  currant  is  typical  of  the  undergrowths  of  forests  in  the  east. 
For  this  reason  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  attempt  to  grow  them  in 
the  arid  southwest.  The  above  applies  only  to  true  currants  (Bibes 
rubrum)  and  not  to  dried  seedless  grapes  which  are  sometimes  errone- 
ously called  currants. 

DATES. 

Perhaps  no  crop  now  growing  in  the  Imperial  Valley  has  had  as 
much  scientific  investigation  expended  upon  the  question  of  its  adapta- 
bility to  the  conditions  there  as  has  the  date.  The  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  and  the  Arizona  and  California  Experi- 
ment Stations  have  taken  a  peculiar  interest  in  the  establishment  of 
date  growing  in  the  arid  southwest.  Six  years  ago  Dr.  W.  T.  Swingle 
made  the  prophesy  that  the  Imperial  Valley  was  peculiarly  fitted  for 
the  production  of  high  quality  dates  and  subsequent  developments 
have  proven  his  prophesy  correct.     While  the  date  palm  flourishes 


186 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


best  where  the  summers  are  very  long  and  hot  and  where  the  air  is  ex- 
ceedingly dry,  it  is  also  able  to  endure  a  good  deal  of  frost,  much  more 
in  fact  than  may  be  expected  to  occur  in  the  Imperial  Valley.    While 


Fig.  20. — Young  Deglet  Noor  date  tree  showing  numerous  off-shoots  and 

immature  fruit. 


there  are  a  number  of  palms  which  ripen  excellent  fruit  in  the  Imperial 
Valley,  at  present  the  industry  is  not  on  a  commercial  basis,  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  great  difficulty  in  securing  offshoots  of  desirable 
varieties. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


187 


For  proper  development,  the  date  palm  requires  long,  dry  and  very 
hot  summers,  together  with  a  fertile  soil  and  plenty  of  water.  It 
ripens  its  fruit  to  best  advantage  where  the  relative  humidity  of  the 
air  is  very  low  during  harvest  time.  It  endures  a  great  deal  of  alkali 
and  will  grow  well  on  soil  unsuited  to  other  crops.  A  few  offshoots 
each  of  nearly  two  hundred  different  varieties  have  been  imported  by 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  from  the  date  producing  regions 


Fig.  21. — Young  seedling  date  bearing  fruit. 


of  the  Old  World.  These  have  been  grown  and  tested  by  the  Arizona 
Station  at  Tempe  and  a  number  of  them  are  producing  successfully, 
but  as  these  plants  produce  only  one  or  two  offshoots  a  year  each  it  is 
easily  seen  that  a  number  of  years  will  necessarily  elapse  before  suffi- 
cient offshoots  will  be  available  for  planting  out  any  considerable  area 
of  ground. 

While  waiting  for  more  plentiful  offshoots  of  the  most  promising 
varieties,  such  as  the  Deglet  Noor,  Tadala,  Itima,  Maktum,  Halooa, 
Horra  and  M'Kentichi  Degla,  date  seeds  should  be  planted  in  the  hope 
of  securing  desirable  kinds.     It  is  quite  probable  that  some  seedlings 


188  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

may  originate  in  the  region  which  may  be  even  more  satisfactory  and 
profitable  than  any  of  the  imported  varieties.  Dates  of  course  do  not 
come  true  from  seed  and  about  half  of  the  seedlings  will  be  males. 
While  it  may  not  be  profitable  to  plant  a  large  acreage  to  seedlings, 
some  space  may  easily  be  found  about  the  home  grounds  or  along 
roadsides  and  ditch  banks  for  growing  a  few  trees,  especially  as  they 
have  considerable  value  as  ornamentals.  For  this  purpose  it  is  poor 
policy  to  plant  seeds  from  imported  dates  bought  in  the  stores.  Such 
dates  may  have  been  pollinated  by  the  Arabs  with  pollen  from  wild 
and  worthless  palms  and  the  seed  would  of  course  possess  this  un- 
desirable heritage.  It  is  better  to  use  seeds  which  have  been  grown  in 
this  country  and  pollinated  from  male  palms  which  have  sprung  from 
good  dates.  In  this  way  the  probability  of  worthless  seedlings  is  de- 
creased from  one-half  to  one-fourth.  Most  male  seedlings  will  show 
some  bloom  before  they  are  very  large  and  may  be  destroyed  as  fast 
as  their  sex  is  disclosed  by  the  flowers,  thus  leaving  more  room  to  the 
females. 

It  is  expected  that  a  more  exhaustive  report  on  dates  will  be  pub- 
lished by  this  Station  before  the  plantings  assume  large  proportions. 

DEWBERRY. 

Dewberries,  particularly  the  Gardena  variety,  produce  abundantly 
and  the  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality,  both  as  to  size  and  flavor.  The 
Gardena  is  harvested  during  the  first  two  weeks  of  May.  Vigorous 
roots  planted  in  the  fall  on  Imperial  loam  or  sandy  loam  will  often 
produce  good  crops  the  following  spring.  In  fact,  the  fruit  is  pro- 
duced in  such  quantities  that  it  may  prove  profitable  to  grow  them 
for  shipment  to  northern  markets.  The  practicability  of  such  ship- 
ments, however,  has  not  as  yet  been  thoroughly  determined. 

EGGPLANT. 

This  vegetable  is  quite  tender  to  frost  but  decidedly  resistant  to 
heat.  The  plants  flourish  in  this  climate  and  the  fruit  matures  from 
the  middle  of  May  through  the  summer,  provided  an  abundance  of 
water  is  given.  The  seed  may  be  planted  under  a  protective  covering 
in  January  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  once  in  protected  beds  to 
make  them  stocky  and  strong.  When  there  is  no  longer  danger  from 
frost  they  may  be  set  out  in  the  field.  The  Mammoth  Improved  Spine- 
less has  been  reported  as  producing  well  and  we  presume  that  other 
varieties  also  would  succeed. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual. 


189 


EUCALYPTS. 

There  are  almost  a  hundred  different  species  of  Eucalyptus  grow- 
ing in  California  at  the  present  time.  The  various  kinds  differ  tre- 
mendously among  themselves  as  to  their  ability  to  withstand  extremes 


Fig.  22. — Eucalyptus  rostrata  growing  in  pasture  as  a  shade  tree. 


of  climate,  such  as  frost,  heat  and  dryness.  Some  kinds  endure  low 
temperatures,  but  little  heat;  some  endure  great  heat  but  are  tender 
to  frost.  While  almost  all  kinds  flourish  near  the  coast  in  southern 
California,  only  a  very  few  are  adapted  to  the  peculiar  climatic  con- 
ditions of  the  Imperial  Valley,  and  hence  many  failures  and  much 


190 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


disappointment  will  result  unless  due  care  is  observed  in  the  selection 
of  species. 


Fig.  23. — Eucalyptus  rostrata  seven  years  old. 


Judging  from  past  experiences,  we  may  say  that  of  the  kinds  tested 
the  following  may  be  expected  to  grow  and  endure  the  conditions 
fairly  well:  forest  gray  gum  (E.  tereticornis),  red  gum  (E.  rostrata), 
desert  gum  (E.  rudis),  white  gum  (E.  leucoxylon) ,  manna  gum  (E. 


Bulletin  210. 


IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS     CROP  MANUAL. 


191 


viminalis),  red  box  or  Australian  beech  (E.  polyanthema) ,  narrow- 
leaved  iron-bark  (E.  crebra) ,  and  swamp  mahogany  (E.  robusta) . 
Of  these,  the  most  valuable  and  satisfactory  for  general  planting  in 
the  Imperial  Valley  are  in  the  order  named :  E.  tereticomis,  E.  ros- 
trata,  E.  rudis,  and  E.  viminalis.  More  thorough  testing  in  subsequent 
years  may  change  the  order  given  or  even  add  other  species  to  the  list. 
The  list  is  given  more  as  a  summary  of  present  indications  than  as  a 
final  verdict. 

There  is  certainly  no  doubt  that  E.  tereticomis  flourishes  and  makes 
a  rapid  growth  under  Imperial  conditions,  and  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  it  should  be  planted  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  present. 

In  a  naturally  desert  and  treeless 
country  it  will  prove  of  great  value 
for  fence  posts,  for  fuel,  and  for 
many  other  purposes  for  which 
durable  hardwood  timber  is  used. 
There  are  offered  for  sale  two 
types  or  varieties  of  E.  tereticomis, 
the  broad  leaved  and  the  narrow 
leaved.  The  narrow  leaved  type, 
E.  tereticomis  var.  linearis,  is  much 
the  best  kind  for  planting  in  Im- 
perial and  in  making  purchases  this 
variety  should  be  insisted  upon. 

Eucalyptus  trees  are  propagated 
exclusively  from  seed  and  the 
young  plants  are  set  in  their  per- 
manent places  in  February  or 
March  when  from  six  to  twenty 
inches  high.  While  some  kinds  are 
more  resistant  to  drouth  than 
others,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that  the  growth  of  any  kind  of 
Eucalypt  in  the  Imperial  Valley  is 
dependent  upon  irrigation  water. 
When  first  set  out  they  should  be 
watered  once  a  week,  three  fur- 
rows to  the  row  but  after  the  first 
year  one  furrow  to  the  row  and  one 

w  «,'"*«",  irrigation  everv  four  to  six  weeks 

Fig.  24.— Trunk  of  Eucalyptus  ,     °_  _  _ 

rostrata  seven  years  old.  should  be  sufficient. 


192 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TIGS. 


Fig  trees  of  many  varieties  make  a  luxuriant  growth  and  bear 
heavily  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  Accurate  data  on  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  different  varieties  is  very  meagre.  The  Mission,  White 
Adriatic,  Brown  Turkey,  and  Black  San  Pedro  are  known  to  produce 


Fig.  25. — Four-year-old  fig  tree  on  the  S.  M.  Bixby  ranch  near  Imperial. 


well  wherever  they  receive  sufficient  water  and  a  reasonable  amount 
of  care.  The  Smyrna  class  of  figs  grow  well,  but  it  is  necessary  to 
maintain  a  colony  of  Blastophaga,  or  fig  wasps,  on  Capri  fig  trees  and 
pollinate  the  Smyrna  trees  artificially,  in  order  to  secure  a  crop. 

While  the  fig  is  highly  successful  as  a  fresh  fruit  for  home  use  and 
for  local  markets,  its  possibilities  as  a  dried  product  on  a  commercial 
scale  are  not  known.  Very  little  experimenting  has  been  done  up  to 
date.  The  relative  humidity  of  the  air  varies  much  in  different 
seasons.    Some  seasons  the  humidity  has  been  such  that  some  difficulty 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  193 

has  been  experienced  in  drying-  them.  In  other  seasons  it  has  been 
so  dry  that  some  varieties,  such  as  the  White  Adriatic,  have  been 
reported  as  drying  on  the  trees  before  fully  mature. 

There  are  no  known  serious  pests  of  the  fig  in  Imperial  Valley. 
The  large  green  beetle,  known  as  the  "Fig  Eater"  (Allorhina  muta- 
bilis)  which  is  so  destructive  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Arizona,  has 
not  yet  gained  a  foothold. 

FLAX. 

Flax  has  only  been  grown  in  a  small  experimental  way  and  very 
little  is  known  as  to  its  possibilities.  Being  a  crop  which  is  better 
suited  to  the  north  it  is  quite  sensitive  to  the  summer  heat  and  should 
be  planted  in  October  and  harvested  for  seed  or  fibre  in  the  spring. 

GOOSEBERRY. 
It  is  very  doubtful  if  gooseberries  can  be  grown  in  the  Imperial 
Valley  with  profit,  as  they  are  not  at  all  suited  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions. 

GRAINS. 

Barley  is  the  principal  grain  crop  of  the  valley.  It  is  better 
adapted  to  a  warm  climate  than  any  of  the  other  grains,  although 
the  hot  weather  rather  than  the  cold  is  the  limiting  factor  in  its 
growth.  The  yield  varies  from  8  to  25  sacks  per  acre,  averaging  from 
12  to  15  sacks  per  acre.  It  is  grown  for  grain,  for  winter  pasture, 
and  for  hay,  the  usual  practice  being  to  pasture  the  field  in  the  late 
fall  and  winter  (not  later  than  February)  and  to  then  let  it  go  to 
grain  or  hay.  In  this  way  it  forms  a  valuable  green  feed  when  alfalfa 
is  practically  dormant.  It  is  often  planted  in  the  alfalfa  in  the  fall 
to  furnish  a  supplementary  winter  feed.  A  good  discing  before  plant- 
ing the  barley  will  insure  a  good  stand  and  help  the  alfalfa.  It  is 
not  considered  very  profitable  when  grown  for  grain  alone,  on  a  small 
scale,  although  it  is  planted  on  most  of  the  raw  land  as  the  first  crop, 
as  it  gives  quick  returns  and  can  be  planted  before  the  land  is  per- 
fectly or  permanently  leveled.  As  the  valley  settles  up  the  barley 
fields  will  give  way  to  more  intensively  cultivated  and  more  profitable 
crops  unless  grown  in  a  two-crop  rotation. 

Barley  will  not  sprout  during  the  very  hot  weather  in  summer, 
when  the  temperature  remains  above  110  degrees  F.  during  the  day. 
even  when  the  proper  moisture  conditions  are  supplied.  The  seed  is 
sown  any  time  after  the  middle  of  September  to  the  middle  of  Febru- 
ary. ,If  winter  pasture  is  desired  the  seed  is  usually  planted  about 
the  first  of  October.    When  grain  alone  is  wanted  the  barley  is  usually 


194  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

sown  in  the  latter  part  of  December  or  the  first  part  of  January.  The 
grain  ripens  in  May.  Broadcasting  the  seed,  followed  by  harrowing, 
is  the  common  method  of  planting.  From  20  to  40  pounds  of  seed  is 
used  per  acre  when  sown  in  the  early  fall  and  from  40  to  75  pounds 
when  sown  in  the  spring  or  winter,  since  the  spring  sown  grain  does 
not  tiller  or  stool  as  does  that  sown  in  the  fall.  The  usual  practice  is 
to  allow  the  land  to  reseed  itself  or  volunteer  after  the  first  year,  as  the 
scattering  caused  by  allowing  the  ripened  grain  to  stand  for  a  long 
time  in  the  severe  spring  winds  before  harvesting  leaves  plenty  of  seed 
on  the  ground  to  come  up  after  the  fall  irrigation. 

The  land  is  sometimes  irrigated  before  planting  but  usually  the 
seed  is  put  in  dry  soil  and  then  irrigated.  The  amount  of  water  needed 
to  mature  the  crop  varies  with  the  different  soils.  Usually  five  irriga- 
tions are  sufficient  if  given  at  the  proper  time. 

Oats  have  been  tried  but  have  never  proved  to  be  a  great  success, 
mainly  because  they  are  more  adapted  to  a  colder  and  more  m,oist 
climate.  The  Texas  Red  variety  yields  fairly  well  but  does  not  seem 
to  be  as  profitable  as  barley. 

Wheat  of  several  varieties  has  been  grown  in  the  valley  and  has 
given  good  results  in  most  cases.  Wheat  is  not  so  well  adapted  to 
this  locality  as  barley,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  has  been  almost 
entirely  supplanted  by  barley  during  the  past  nine  years.  The  rust 
which  attacked  the  wheat  in  1905  was  no  more  serious  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  State  that  same  year,  consequently  the  statement  that 
wheat  is  more  susceptible  to  rust  in  Imperial  Valley  than  in  other 
localities  is  not  true.  The  general  cultural  treatment  for  wheat  is 
the  same  as  that  for  barley. 

GRAPE    GROWING   IN   THE    IMPERIAL   VALLEY.7 

From  the  beginning  of  the  settlement  of  the  Imperial  Valley,  about 
ten  years  ago,  the  growing  of  grapes  has  received  a  great  deal  of 
attention.  There  are  at  present  about  two  hundred  growers  of  grapes, 
possessing  vineyards  of  various  sizes,  from  one  hundred  vines  up  to 
one  hundred  acres  or  more,  scattered  over  the  Valley  from  Brawley 
to  Calexico.  These  vines  are  all  of  vinifera  varieties,  only  an  occa- 
sional vine  of  a  labrusca  or  other  East  American  variety  being  found. 
The  total  area  in  vines  is  probably  about  500  to  600  acres,  although 
the  County  Recorder  places  the  number  of  vines  in  the  county  in 
1909  at  only  159,565. 

The  rapidity  of  growth  and  vigor  of  the  vines  is  remarkable  and 


By  Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulturist,  California  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


195 


their  fruitfulness  and  earliness  of  bearing  scarcely  less  so.  The  fruit 
ripens  from  two  to  six  weeks  earlier  than  in  any  other  part  of  Cali- 
fornia except  in  the  Coachella  Valley,  which  is  part  of  the  same 
climatological    area. 


Fig.  26. — Three-year-old  Sultanina  vine  on  Reid  ranch. 


With  these  favorable  conditions  there  seems  to  be  every  reason  to 
anticipate  that  the  growing  of  grapes  will  be  a  very  profitable  industry 
in  the  valley.  On  this  point,  however,  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion  among  the  growers.  "While  some  growers  seem  to  have  done 
very  well,  others  have  failed  to  make  a  profit  out  of  their  crops.  One 
of  the  reasons  given  for  failure  to  realize  a  profit  is  the  high  cost  of 
transportation  and  labor.    But  the  price  of  such  grapes  as  are  accepted 


196  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

by  the  packers  is  also  high,  being  $50  to  $60  per  ton  at  the  packing 
house  in  1910.  Another  reason  given  is  that  the  grapes  grown  in 
the  Imperial  Valley  have  poor  shipping  and  keeping  qualities  and  that 
only  a  small  proportion  get  to  the  market  in  good  condition.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  some  of  the  grapes  grown  in  the  valley  have  excep- 
tionally good  keeping  and  shipping  qualities.  The  true  main  reason 
for  the  failure  to  make  grape  growing  pay  seems  to  lie  in  the  failure 
to  adopt  suitable  methods  of  growing  and  treating  the  vines  and 
grapes.  The  climatic  and  soil  conditions  are  peculiar  and  different 
from  those  of  any  other  grape  growing  section  of  California,  and 
special  methods  are  necessary  to  insure  profitable  returns.  The  full 
profit  of  the  industry  will  be  realized  only  when  the  methods  best 
adapted  to  the  conditions  are  generally  known  and  followed.  What 
these  best  methods  are,  study,  time  and  experience  alone  can  determine. 

Every  phase  of  the  subject,  from  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for 
planting  to  the  delivery  of  the  grapes  to  the  consumer,  requires  in- 
vestigation. Already,  indeed,  a  considerable  amount  of  experimenta- 
tion, intentional  and  otherwise,  has  been  carried  out.  Grape  growers 
from  widely  differing  viticultural  sections  have  been  planting  and 
cultivating  vines  in  the  valley  for  several  years,  all  modifying  their 
practice  more  .  or  less  in  accordance  with  the  customs  of  their  old 
homes.  A  large  number  of  vinifera  varieties  have  been  introduced 
and  tested.  On  many  points,  therefore,  there  is  experimental  data  on 
which  to  make  comparisons  and  form  conclusions. 

At  present,  the  grapes  are  grown  exclusively  for  early  shipment  as 
table  grapes  or  for  local  consumption.  The  principal  shipping  season 
extends  from  about  the  middle  of  June  to  the  end  of  July,  varying 
somewhat  in  different  years.  The  great  bulk  of  the  grapes  consists  of 
Sultanina  (Thompson's  Seedless),  Malaga,  and  Muscat  of  Alexandria, 
ripening  in  the  order  named.  The  shipments  of  Malaga  far  exceed 
those  of  all  other  varieties  combined.  The  season  could  undoubtedly 
be  lengthened  by  the  use  of  varieties  ripening  before  the  Sultanina 
and  of  very  late  varieties.  The  latter  would  come  in  competition  with 
varieties  from  other  sections,  but  being  very  distinct  in  character  they 
would  undoubtedly  find  a  market. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — It  is  very  important  that  the  vines  should 
have  strong  root  systems  penetrating  deeply  into  the  soil. 

In  many,  probably  in  most,  of  the  vineyards  of  the  valley  the  vines 
have  shallow  spreading  roots  confined  to  the  top  foot  of  soil.  In 
severnl  eases  examined,  no  rools  as  large  as  a  pencil  were  found  below 
ten    indies   From   the  surface.     Such    vines   may  grow  vigorously  and 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


197 


even  bear  heavy  crops  so  long  as  the  layer  of  soil  in  which  the  roots 
lie  is  kept  moist.  This  requires  numerous  irrigations  throughout  the 
growing  season.  The  omission  of  one  irrigation  may  seriously  damage 
or  kill  vines  in  this  state  of  unstable  equilibrium.  Even  when  the 
irrigations  are  not  neglected  the  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the 
best  results.    Where  the  roots  are  confined  to  the  upper  twelve  inches 


Fig.  27. — Vine  with  shallow  horizontal  root  system,  very  objectionable. 


of  soil  they  are  subject  to  constant  changes  in  moisture  and  tempera- 
ture. This  condition  is  unfavorable  to  the  proper  development  and 
nourishment  of  the  fruit  and  does  not  tend  towards  the  production  of 
grapes  of  the  highest  eating  or  shipping  qualities. 

With  a  deep  root  system  penetrating  six,  eight,  or  more  feet  in 
depth,  the  growth  of  the  vine  is  more  regular,  the  grapes  ripen  more 
regularly,  are  firmer  and  of  better  flavor.  Moreover,  fewer  irrigations 
are  needed  and  the  omission  of  one  will  not  have  such  serious  con- 
sequences. 

The  position  of  the  main  roots  of  the  vine  is  fixed  by  the  growth 
of  the  first  year.  Where  this  growth  will  be  is  determined  by  the  soil 
conditions  and  not  by  the  length  or  position  of  the  cutting.    The  roots 


198  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

will  grow  where  they  find  the  most  favorable  temperature  and  mois- 
ture. If  the  soil  at  two  feet  is  dry  the  roots  will  not  grow  there, 
however  long  the  cutting  may  have  been.  If  the  soil  at  six  feet  has 
the  proper  degree  of  moisture  the  roots  will  go  to  that  depth,  however 
short  the  cuttings.  Before  planting  the  vineyard,  therefore,  the  soil 
must  be  thoroughly  soaked  down  to  five  or  six  feet  at  least. 

Owing  to  the  filling  up  of  the  soil  pores  with  the  silt  carried  by  the 
irrigating  water,  this  deep  wetting  cannot  be  accomplished  on  hard 
soils  by  ordinary  furrow  irrigation  or  a  single  flooding  in  the  usual 
manner.  Some  more  efficient  method  of  wetting  such  soils  must  be 
found  if  the  vines  are  to  be  placed  on  a  stable  basis. 

Probably  the  growing  of  alfalfa  on  the  land  for  two  or  three  years 
before  planting  would  be  the  best  means.  The  repeated  heavy  flood- 
ings  would  finally  moisten  the  soil  down  to  the  required  depth  and  the 
alfalfa  would  improve  the  humus  and  nitrogen  contents  of  the  soil. 
Another  method  adopted  with  success  by  some  growers  is  to  check 
up  the  land  with  levees  high  enough  to  allow  of  flooding  each  check 
to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet.  When  the  water  of  this  first  flooding 
has  disappeared  by  soaking  in  and  evaporation  the  check  is  flooded 
again.  Two  or  three  floodings  of  this  kind  will,  in  most  cases,  wet 
the  soil  down  sufficiently  deep.  Another  method  suggested  is  a  pro- 
longed slow  irrigation  with  very  small  furrows.  This,  however,  is 
laborious  and  less  certain  to  moisten  all  the  soil  equally. 

Choice  of  Cuttings  and  Boots. — If  the  soil  is  properly  prepared  by 
soaking  and  deep  plowing,  cuttings  should  succeed  almost  as  well  as 
roots. 

The  cuttings  should  be  chosen,  made  and  handled  properly.8  With 
care  in  planting  and  cultivation,  ninety  per  cent,  or  more  of  them 
should  make  a  good  growth.  Those  which  miss  should  be  carefully 
replaced  the  following  year  with  rooted  vines. 

The  length  of  the  cutting  is  not  of  great  importance  providing  it 
is  long  enough  not  to  run  any  risk  of  becoming  dry  before  it  roots. 
From  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  is  a  convenient  length.  Longer  cut- 
tings simply  increase  the  cost  of  planting  without  any  corresponding 
benefit. 

The  soil,  after  irrigating,  should  be  plowed,  harrowed,  and  gotten 
into  perfect  condition  before  planting.  The  cuttings,  after  soaking 
in  water  for  one  to  three  days,  should  be  planted  with  care  to  avoid 
drying.     The  soil  should  be  packed  tightly  around  the  cutting  from 


b  See  Circular  26,  "The  Sclcd  ion  and  Preparation  of  Vine  Cuttings,"  Agn- 
cultural   Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  California. 


BULLETIN   210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


199 


the  bottom  nearly  to  the  top  and  only  one  bud  left  above  the  surface. 

If  the  soil  is  sufficiently  moist  when  the  cuttings  are  planted,  no 

irrigation  will  be  necesary  for  several  weeks.     Repeated  cultivation  to 

keep  the  surface  loose  and  so  preserve  the  moisture  already  in  the  soil 


Fig.  28. — A  vine  pruned  too  low,  grapes  massed  together  and  lying  on  the 

ground. 


is  better  than  any  irrigation  at  this  time.  By  keeping  the  top  four 
to  six  inches  of  soil  loose  and  dry  the  moisture  below  that  depth  is 
prevented  from  escaping  and  the  roots  are  encouraged  to  take  a  down- 
ward direction.  If,  however,  the  soil  has  become  a  little  too  dry  on 
top  before  planting,  a  small  stream  of  water  should  be  run  down  each 


200  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

row,  giving  the  soil  around  each  cutting  a  good  soaking.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  flooding  the  whole  vineyard,  as  this  will  tend  to 
form  a  crust  and  make  it  difficult  to  preserve  the  moisture-holding  soil 
mulch. 

During  the  summer,  the  young  vines  should  be  kept  growing  by 
cultivation  and,  when  necessary,  irrigation.  Frequent  shallow  irriga- 
tion should  be  avoided.  Some  means  of  getting  the  water  down  below 
the  top  eight  or  ten  inches  should  be  found.  Shallow  irrigation  the 
first  year  produces  shallow  rooted  vines  and  shallow  rooted  vines  in 
the  hot  dry  climate  of  Imperial  have  a  precarious  existence. 

Form  of  the  Vine. — Just  as  the  general  character  of  the  root  system 
is  determined  by  the  growth  of  the  first  year,  so  the  form  of  the  mature 
vine  is  determined  by  the  growth  and  training  of  the  first  one,  two, 
or  three  years.  In  fact,  in  Imperial  County  the  growth  is  often  so 
large  the  first  year  that  the  treatment  the  vine  receives  during  this 
year  determines  whether  we  have  a  vine  which  can  be  handled  with 
economy  and  profit  or  one  which  costs  far  more  than  it  ought  to 
prune  and  cultivate,  and  which  produces  only  second  rate  grapes  of 
poor  shipping  qualities.  A  considerable  amount  of  extra  care  and 
expense  the  first  two  years  will  undoubtedly  be  more  than  justified 
and  returned  by  saving  of  expense  and  increased  returns  from  the 
bearing  vineyard. 

A  poorly  shaped  vine,  lying  on  the  ground,  with  crossing  and  inter- 
locking arms  is  difficult,  in  fact  impossible,  to  prune  and  cultivate 
properly.  The  grapes  on  such  a  vine  lie  on  the  ground,  become  soiled, 
moldy  and  ripen  unequally.  When  they  are  gathered,  the  best  bunches 
cannot  be  taken  from  the  vines  without  breaking  and  bruising  a  large 
proportion  of  the  berries.  The  result  is  that  only  about  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  grapes  will  be  accepted  by  the  packers,  and  this  fifty  per  cent, 
is  often  handled  at  a  loss  owing  to  poor  keeping  qualities. 

What  the  best  form  for  the  vine  is,  under  the  conditions  of  Imperial 
County,  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  our  present  experience.  But 
there  is  room  for  much  improvement  in  the  present  practice  of  a 
majority  of  the  vineyards  and  there  are  certain  characteristics  that 
may  be  accepted  as  necessary  for  a  good  vine. 

In  the  first  place  the  vine  should  have  a  clear,  straight  trunk 
without  arms,  spurs  or  branches,  at  least  fifteen  inches  high.  At  the 
top  of  this  trunk  the  arms  bearing  the  fruiting  wood  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  bunches  of  grapes  hang  free  from  each  other  and 
from  growing  shoots.     As  much  as  possible  each  bunch  should  be 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


201 


exposed  equally  to  light  and  air  and  should  be  so  placed  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  gather  it  by  the  stem  without  breaking  or  even  touching  a 
berry. 


tZ* 


Fig.  29. — Mature  vine  of  proper  shape. 


This  may  seem  an  impracticable  refinement.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  bunches  of  perfect  grapes  of  good  shipping 
qualities  can  be  sold  for  $50  per  ton,  while  poor  grapes  are  worth 
only  about  $5  for  hog  feed.  The  gross  returns,  therefore,  from  five 
acres  of  good  shipping  grapes  are  equal  to  those  of  fifty  acres  of  poor 
grapes  and  the  net  profits  may  be  ten  times  as  great.  Many  growers 
could  undoubtedly  very  much  increase  their  profits  by  concentrating 
their  labor  and  expense  on  half  the  area  they  now  cultivate. 


202 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


For  most  of  the  varieties  now 
grown  in  Imperial  County  the  open 
vase  form  of  vine  is  an  excellent 
one.  In  this  form,  six  to  eight  arms, 
arranged  symmetrically  around  the 
head  or  top  of  the  15  to  18  inch 
trunk,  spread  out  in  all  directions, 
rising  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to 
30°  from  the  vertical.  This  form 
makes  it  possible  to  cultivate  close 
up  to  the  vine  without  injuring  it 
and  arranges  the  bearing  wood  in 
such  a  way  that  the  bunches  are 
well  spaced  without  interference 
and  easy  to  get  at. 

This  or  any  other  suitable  form 
cannot  be  attained  without  the  use 
of  stakes.  Where  the  vines  make 
a  large  growth  the  first  year,  the 
stakes  should  be  placed  when  the 
vines  are  planted.  The  way  of 
handling  the  young  vines  to  get 
them  into  the  desired  shape  is  de- 
scribed in  Bulletin  193,  pp.  146  to 
155.9 


Fig.  30. — Young  vine  staked  and 
properly  started. 


Irrigation. — Among  the  most  difficult  problems  are  those  connected 
with  the  proper  irrigation  of  the  vineyards. 

The  desirability  of  deep  and  not  too  frequent  irrigation  of  young 
vines  has  already  been  pointed  out.  It  is  equally  necessary  for  bear- 
ing vines.  Some  growers  of  small  vineyards  keep  their  vines  irrigated 
almost  constantly.  Other  vineyards  are  left  five  months  without 
irrigation.  The  proper  number  will  depend  in  any  particular  case 
principally  on  the  position  of  the  roots.  With  deep  rooted  vines  three 
or  four  thorough  irrigations  during  the  year  seem  to  be  all  that  are 
accessary,  providing  the  cultivation  is  well  done. 

The  best  time  for  these  irrigations  is  perhaps  not  yet  determined. 
Tn  this  respect  two  important  points  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

First:  Any  rapid  and  considerable  addition  to  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  dining  the  last  stages  of  ripening  injures  the  shipping  qualities 
of  the  grapes.     The  grapes  become  watery,  surcharged  with  sap  and 


9  Bulletin    L93,  Agricultural    Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  California. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  .      203 

are  easily  broken  or  detached  from  the  pedicle  by  a  touch.  The  last 
irrigation  before  gathering  the  crop,  therefore,  should  not  be  later 
than  the  commencement  of  ripening.  If  the  irrigation  and  cultiva- 
tion has  been  properly  done  up  to  that  point  the  soil  should  contain 
enough  moisture  to  bring  the  grapes  to  the  shipping  point  of  ripeness. 

Second :  A  vine,  for  the  best  results,  should  have  a  dormant  or 
resting  period.  In  the  tropics,  where  the  atmosphere  is  constantly 
warm  and  the  soil  constantly  moist,  the  vine  becomes  an  evergreen. 
The  grapes  produced  under  these  conditions  are  of  poor  quality, 
deficient  in  sugar  and  flavoring.  The  growth  of  the  vine  is  not 
checked  completely  by  cold  until  the  mean  daily  temperature  falls 
below  48°  F.  The  mean  daily  temperature  for  December,  the  coldest 
month  at  El  Centro  in  1909,  was  50.25°  F.  If  this  alone  controlled 
the  dormancy  the  vine  should  remain  evergreen.  There  are,  however, 
one  or  two  days  each  year,  usually  in  December  or  January,  when  the 
temperature  drops  to  the  freezing  points  or  a  few  degrees  below.  This 
is  sufficient  to  make  the  vine  lose  its  leaves  and  remain  dormant  for  a 
short  time  before  the  new  buds  swell. 

For  the  best  results  the  vine  seems  to  need  about  three  months  rest. 
In  order  to  insure  this,  the  vine  should  commence  its  dormant  season 
before  the  December  or  January  frost.  This  can  be  controlled  by 
suitable  management  of  the  irrigation. 

"When  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  falls  below  a  certain  per- 
centage the  vine  ceases  to  grow.  When  the  soil  becomes  still  dryer 
the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  fall  and  the  vine  becomes  dormant.  The 
irrigation  should  be  so  applied,  therefore,  that  the  vines  are  caused 
to  become  dormant  by  drying  of  the  soil,  sometime  in  November.  The 
drying  of  the  soil  should  not  be  too  early  or  too  intense  or  the  vines 
may  be  injured. 

After  the  grapes  are  gathered  a  very  important  part  of  the  work 
of  the  leaves  still  remains  to  be  accomplished.  This  work  is  the 
ripening  of  the  young  canes  and  the  laying  up  of  stores  of  starch  in 
the  buds  and  other  organs  of  the  vine.  It  is  on  the  abundance  of  these 
stores  that  the  growth  and  crop  of  the  following  year  depend. 

This  laying  up  of  winter  stores  by  the  action  of  the  leaves  requires 
a  month  or  six  weeks  and  takes  place  most  abundantly  when  the  vine 
is  provided  with  a  large  number  of  mature  green  leaves  but  is  making 
little  or  no  new  growth.  In  some  cases  an  irrigation  immediately 
after  the  gathering  of  the  grapes  would  be  necessary  or  advisable  to 
prevent  the  premature  dropping  of  the  leaves. 


204 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Intercalary  Crops. — Many  growers  have  been  raising  melons  and 
other  annual  crops  between  the  vines,  especially  during  the  first  year 
or  two.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  good  practice  so  far  as  the 
success  of  the  vines  is  concerned.  Any  crop  which  requires  frequent 
irrigations  leads  to  the  keeping  of  the  top  layer  of  soil  unduly  wet 
and  promotes  the  shallow  rooting  of  the  vines.  It  is  possible  that  by 
growing  the  intercalary  crop  in  the  middle  of  the  row  and  irrigating 


Fig.  31. — Cantaloupes,  apricots,  and  grapes  growing  together. 


in  such  a  way  that  the  top  soil  near  the  vines  is  not  moistened  by  each 
application  of  water  that  no  harm  would  be  done  to  the  vines  when 
young.  Any  crop  which  requires  constant  or  frequent  irrigation 
should  not  be  grown  among  bearing  vines  or  the  quality  of  the  fruit 
will  suffer. 

Other  growers  make  mixed  plantings  of  fruit  trees,  peaches, 
apricots,  etc.,  with  vines.  There  are  indications  that  this  may  be  a 
good  practice.  The  trees  break  the  force  of  the  wind  and  make  it 
easier  to  raise  the  vines  and  give  them  a  suitable  shape. 

Diseases  of  the  Vine. — So  far  no  fungous  disease  of  the  vine  of 
any  importance  has  been  noted  in  Imperial  County.  The  dryness  of 
the  air  during  the  growing  and  ripening  season  of  the  early  grapes 
makes  it  unlikely  that  there  should  ever  be  much  trouble  from  this 
source.  The  moister  weather  which  occasionally  occurs  after  mid- 
summer might  involve  danger  in  this  respect,  but  no  fungous  disease 
has  yet  been  called  to  the  attention  of  the  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


205 


3 

orq" 


I 

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5' 

p 


206  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

The  only  serious  insect  pests  that  have  been  noted  are  the  vine 
hopper  and  a  species  of  thrips. 

The  vine  hopper  seems  at  present  confined  almost  entirely  to  one 
locality,  but  it  is  possible  that  it  may  become  as  serious  a  pest  as  it 
is  in  many  other  parts  of  California.  The  only  method  of  control 
which  so  far  offers  much  chance  of  success  can  be  applied  effectively 
only  to  vines  which  have  a  distinct  trunk  with  all  arms  well  off  the 
ground.10  This  offers  another  forcible  reason  for  adopting  the  mode  of 
training  recommended. 

The  thrips  have  been  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  vine  blossoms. 
So  far  as  noted,  no  particular  damage  seems  to  have  been  done,  as 
their  attacks  were  confined  to  the  second  crop. 

Several  cases  of  dying  vines  were  investigated.  In  some  cases  the 
numbers  of  dying  and  dead  vines  was  large.  In  all  cases  the  trouble 
seems  to  be  due  to  mistakes  in  irrigation  or  cultivation.  In  the  worst 
cases  the  trouble  seemed  to  be  due  to  the  shallow  rooting  of  the  vines 
and  their  consequent  sensitiveness  to  heat  and  drouth. 

This  valley,  like  all  of  southern  California,  seems  to  be  so  far  free 
from  phylloxera.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  that  the  present  strict 
quarantine  should  be  maintained  against  all  rooted  vines  from  outside 
the  county  and  especially  from  eastern  states  and  Europe.  The  exclu- 
sion of  unrooted  cuttings,  however,  works  an  unnecessary  hardship  on 
those  growers  who  wish  to  plant  or  experiment  with  varieties  which 
cannot  be  obtained  in  the  county.  There  is  very  little  danger  from 
cuttings  grown  in  California  and  this  danger  can  be  eliminated  by 
disinfection  under  the  direction  of  the  horticultural  quarantine  officer. 

Handling  the  Grapes. — The  profitable  production  of  grapes  in 
Imperial  County  at  present  and  probably  in  the  future  can  be  carried 
on  only  by  the  methods  of  intensive  culture.  Wholesale,  careless 
methods  may  in  some  regions  yield  a  profit  in  growing  wine  grapes 
or  raisin  grapes,  but  the  conditions  for  these  industries  are  not  at 
present  favorable  in  this  region.  Fine  early  table  grapes  that  can  be 
placed  on  the  eastern  market  in  prime  condition  will  command  high 
{) rices.  Inferior  grapes  or  grapes  which  spoil  before  they  reach  the 
consumer  are  hard  to  give  away  and  can  never  yield  a  permanent 
profit. 

.Every  reasonable  effort,  therefore,  should  be  made  to  produce  only 
the  choicest  fruit.  An  extra  expenditure  of  $25  to  $50  per  acre  is 
justified  if  the  salable  value  of  the  crop  is  increased  $100  or  $150  per 
acre. 


LOSee   Bulletin    L98  and    Bulletin  193,  pp.  111-116,  Agricultural    Experiment 
Station,  Berkeley,  California. 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  207 

The  preceding  suggestions  regarding  improvements  in  planting, 
pruning,  training  and  irrigation  have  this  in  vew.  The  proper  handing 
of  the  grapes  is  no  less  important.  A  bunch  of  grapes  which  is  perfect 
in  the  vineyard  may  be  easily  ruined  by  careless  gathering  or  hauling 
before  it  reaches  the  packing  shed. 

The  grapes,  in  gathering,  should  be  touched  as  little  as  possible 
and  handled  only  by  the  peduncle  or  main  stem.  They  should  be 
placed  carefully  in  wide  shallow  boxes  in  a  single  layer.  In  these 
boxes  they  should  remain  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  to  wilt 
slightly  and  lose  their  rigidity  before  packing  and,  if  possible,  before 
hauling.  If  they  are  warm  when  picked  they  will  wilt  more  rapidly 
and  proper  packing  without  injury  to  the  berries  will  be  facilitated. 
Hauling  to  the  packing  house  should  be  done  very  carefully,  prefer- 
ably in  wagons  provided  with  springs.  The  grapes  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  dust  and  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  boxes 
should  be  so  stacked  that  there  is  no  danger  of  crushing  the  grapes. 

Removal  of  Suckers. — Many  bunches  are  injured  in  gathering, 
owing  to  the  necessity  of  freeing  them  from  suckers  and  water-sprouts 
which  have  grown  through  the  middle  of  the  bunch.  Some  of  the 
grapes  are  pulled  off,  some  broken  and,  worst  of  all,  some  of  them  are 
slightly  loosened  around  the  pedicel  or  stalklet.  Most  of  the  broken 
berries  can  be  removed  by  the  trimmers  in  the  packing  house,  but 
many  of  those  simply  loosened  will  escape  their  scrutiny  and  are  a 
fruitful  cause  of  decay. 

By  going  over  the  vineyard  soon  after  the  grapes  have  set,  inter- 
fering shoots  can  be  removed  or  freed  from  the  bunches.  The  cost 
of  this  should  be  abundantly  returned  by  saving  in  labor  of  gather- 
ing and  trimming  and  especially  in  improvement  in  the  shipping 
qualities  of  the  whole  crop.  In  long  shipments  one  spoiled  bunch  may 
infect  a  whole  crate. 

Thinning. — Many  otherwise  suitable  grapes  do  not  ship  well  on 
account  of  the  excessive  compactness  of  the  bunch.  A  compact  bunch 
is  difficult  to  pack  without  injury  and  cannot  be  freed  from  imperfect 
berries  without  spoiling  good  berries. 

This  excessive  compactness  can  be  prevented  by  thinning  before 
the  berries  are  one-third  grown.  Thinning,  moreover,  increases  the 
size  of  the  berries,  hastens  ripening,  promotes  coloring,  and  lessens 
some  forms  of  sunburn.  The  practice  is  regularly  followed  with 
success  by  many  growers  of  Tokay,  Black  Morocco,  and  other  grapes 
in  northern  California.  While  apparently  costly,  the  expense  is  often 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  saving  in  trimming  of  the  ripe 
grapes.    The  increase  of  quality  thus  becomes  a  net  gain. 


208 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  bunches  are  thinned  at  any  time  after  the  berries  have  set  and 
before  they  have  reached  one-third  their  mature  size. 

No  bunches  are  removed,  but  only  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
berries  of  each  bunch.  The  number  of  berries  to  be  removed  will 
depend  upon  how  compact  the  unthinned  bunches  usually  become. 


Fig.  33. — Bunch  of  green  grapes  before  thinning. 


In  general,  it  will  vary  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  the  total  number. 
The  thinning  is  effected  by  cutting  out  several  of  the  side  branchlets 
of  the  bunch.  The  branchlets  should  be  removed  principally  from 
the  part  of  the  bunch  which  has  most  tendency  to  compactness,  usually 
the  upper  part.  The  work  can  be  done  very  rapidly  as  no  great  care 
is  necessary  in  preserving  the  shape  of  the  bunch.    However  irregular 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual. 


209 


or  one-sided  the  bunch  looks  immediately  after  thinning,  it  will  round 
out  and  become  regular  before  ripening. 


Fig.  34. — Bunch  of  green  grapes  after  thinning. 


A  long,  narrow  bladed  knife  or  a  pair  of  grape  trimming  scissors 
can  be  used  conveniently  for  this  work. 

Varieties. — A  very  large  number  of  varieties  have  been  planted  in 
Imperial  Valley.     On  a  recent  trip  about  sixty  varieties  were  seen  in 


210  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

bearing.  Many  of  these  were  too  young  or  too  few  for  a  judgment  to 
be  formed  as  to  their  value.  The  principal  object  of  the  growers  who 
were  testing  these  varieties  seemed  to  be  to  find  a  variety  of  good 
shipping  qualities  earlier  than  the  Malaga  and  especially  to  find  a 
suitable  black  or  red  grape.  There  seemed  to  be  a  general  impression 
that  grapes  ripening  much  after  July  first  were  poor  in  quality  and 
did  not  ship  well. 

Early  Grapes. — Several  varieties  were  seen  ripening  one  to  two 
weeks  before  the  Malaga  and  Sultanina  (Thompson's  Seedless). 

The  Luglienga  has  been  planted  by  several  growers  but  is  gener- 
ally disappointing.  It  ripens  very  early,  but  the  bunches  are  small 
and  compact  and  the  berries  juicy  and  soft.  It  is  inferior  in  these 
respects  to  the  same  variety  grown  in  the  Coachella  Valley.  It  is 
probable  that  it  could  be  much  improved  by  longer  pruning  and 
thinning  of  the  bunch. 

The  Chasselas  dore  and  Chasselas  rose  (White  and  Red  Sweet- 
water) have  the  same  defects  as  the  Luglienga  and  seem  subject  to 
sunburn. 

The  earliest  black  grape  seen  was  the  Blue  Portuguese,  but  it  has 
little  to  recommend  it  except  earliness.  The  berries  are  small  and  too 
juicy  for  distant  shipping.  The  Bellino  is  a  black  grape  almost  as 
early  as  the  Blue  Portuguese  and  very  superior  in  appearance  and 
shipping  qualities.  This  is  the  most  promising  of  the  early  black 
grapes. 

A  few  of  the  Persian  varieties  were  found  bearing  in  several  vine- 
yards and  some  of  them  promise  to  be  superior  to  any  of  the  early 
grapes  yet  tested.  They  have  nearly  all  a  family  resemblance  in 
delicacy  of  texture  and  flavor,  combined  with  a  certain  absence  of 
juiciness  which  promises  well  for  their  shipping  qualities.  They  vary 
considerably  in  color,  shape,  and  time  of  ripening. 

The  varieties  known  as  Persians  Nos.  21,  23,  24,  and  26,  resemble 
each  other  very  closely.  They  are  all  yellowish  white,  short,  cylin- 
drical and  very  early,  ripening  one  or  two  weeks  before  the  Sultanina 
and  at  least  as  early  as  the  Luglienga  and  'Chasselas.  They  are  larger 
and  of  finer  appearance  than  these  varieties.  The  bunches  are  well 
filled  but  loose  and  easy  to  pack.  The  Dizmar  and  Khalille,  also 
Persian  varieties,  belong  to  the  same  group.  The  Chavooshee  is  a 
long  white  grape  ripening  about  the  same  time.  The  Hutab,  Alakahee, 
and  Rish  Baba  are  large,  elongated,  curved  white  grapes  ripening  a 
little  earlier  than  the  Malaga  and  are  all  very  striking  in  appearance 
and  promise  to  be  of  good  shipping  quality. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL.  211 

The  red  "Persian  grapes,  the  Paykanee  and  the  Ashakanee,  should 
be  well  tested.  They  are  very  early,  of  excellent  quality,  and  very 
ornamental.  The  former  seems  to  be  the  best  and  is  the  only  one 
fruiting  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  It  is  of  a  bright  red  tint,  large, 
elongated  and  pointed.  While  very  soft  and  delicate  to  eat  it  is  not 
juicy,  has  large  loose  bunches  and  would  probably  ship  as  well  as  the 
Sultanina. 

The  Askaree,  the  only  black  Persian  grape  we  have,  has  not  yet 
been  tested  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  It  has  most  of  the  good  qualities 
of  the  other  Persians  but  is  a  little  more  delicate  and  might  be 
difficult  to  ship. 

The  varieties  grown  under  the  names  Persian  20,  22,  and  25  are 
small,  juicy,  and  unsuited  for  shipping. 

The  Battier  de  Beirut  is  a  large  oval  grape,  ripening  before  the 
Malaga  and  should  be  tried. 

Of  varieties  ripening  about  the  same  time  as  the  Malaga  the  most 
promising  is  the  Olivette  de  Cadenet.  Several  vines  of  this  variety 
were  seen  in  fruit  and  in  all  cases  they  were  doing  well.  The  grapes 
resemble  very  closely  those  of  the  Malaga  but  seem  to  be  of  a  little 
better  quality  both  for  eating  and  shipping. 

The  Golden  Queen  and  the  Kurtelaska  are  also  promising  varieties. 
They  are  white,  large,  nearly  round,  firm,  and  heavy  bearers. 

The  Bermestia  violacea  is  a  large,  oval,  reddish  grape  ripening 
about  the  same  time  and  may  be  a  valuable  variety. 

The  Black  Damascus  is  the  only  black  grape  planted  in  large 
quantities  and  it  is  generally  successful.  It  is  a  heavy  bearer,  pro- 
ducing large  bunches  of  fine  oval  grapes  that  ship  well. 

A  Black  Muscat  and  the  Moscatello  fino  are  also  promising.  They 
bear  well,  the  grapes  are  highly  flavored  and  large,  and  they  ripen 
sufficiently  early.  They  would  probably  be  too  delicate  for  distant 
shipment. 


GEASSES. 

Australian  Rye  Grass  (Lolium  mtdtiflorum) ,  being  an  annual  does 
well  during  the  winter  months,  but  dies  out  during  the  summer.  It 
is  an  excellent  grass  for  a  winter  lawn,  being  frequently  planted  in 
Bermuda  lawns  in  the  fall.  During  the  winter  it  appears  very  much 
like  common  blue  grass. 

Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon)  is  a  pest  on  ranch  lands  in  the 
valley,  but  is  grown  for  a  lawn  on  many  of  the  town  lots.     It  makes 


212  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

a  very  vigorous  growth  during  the  summer,  but  lies  dormant  during 
the  winter.  On  the  farms  the  Bermuda  grass  spreads  very  rapidly 
by  both  seeds  and  jointed  runners,  and  is  very  hard  to  eradicate  when 
once  established.  By  constant  cultivation  the  grass  can  be  kept  out, 
as  is  done  in  the  orange  districts  of  southern  California.  It  can  be 
eradicated  by  plowing  the  land  and  then  letting  it  go  dry  all  summer. 
The  roots  should  be  kept  stirred  by  cultivation  so  that  they  may  dry 
completely.  "When  the  moisture  content  in  the  soil  remains  high, 
however,  the  roots  are  apt  to  live  over.  On  some  of  the  hard  Imperial 
clay  lands  Bermuda  is  grown  for  pasture.  It  makes  fair  feed  when 
alfalfa  cannot  be  successfully  grown. 

Blue  grass  (Poa  pratensis)  grows  well  during  the  winter  season 
but  does  not  endure  the  hot  weather  well.  If  care  is  taken  to  keep 
the  ground  well  soaked  it  will  live  through  the  summer  but  never  does 
well. 

Johnson  grass  (Sorgum  halipense)  has  proved  such  a  serious  pest 
especially  when  it  becomes  established  in  the  ditches  and  along  borders 
that  a  strenuous  effort  is  being  made  by  the  Horticultural  Commis- 
sioner to  exterminate  the  Johnson  grass  which  is  at  present  in  the 
valley.  It  has  been  introduced  through  seed,  but  is  at  present  con- 
fined to  about  sixty  ranches.  Two  men  are  hired  especially  to  dig 
these  patches  out  and  to  prevent  any  new  growth.  By  a  rigorous 
inspection  of  seed,  additional  importations  may  be  prevented. 

Millet  (Choetochloa  Italica). — Most  varieties  of  millet  do  fairly 
well  in  this  section.  Very  little  millet  is  planted,  however,  since  other 
forage  crops  produce  better  results.  It  is  generally  sown  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  and  harvested  in  the  fall.  Frost  kills  it 
about  as  readily  as  Indian  corn.  Pearl  millet  {Pennisetum  spicatum) 
can  be  grown  successfully  in  the  spring  and  will  make  a  good  growth 
during  the  spring  and  summer. 

Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata)  can  be  made  to  grow  in 
Imperial  Valley,  but  it  is  not  suited  to  the  climate  and  its  culture  is 
no  longer  attempted. 

Para  grass  (Panicum  molle)  was  introduced  into  the  Valley  in 
1909  and  has  made  a  remarkable  growth  in  the  few  patches  where  it 
was  planted.  It  is  considered  a  bad  weed  in  moist  tropical  countries, 
although  it  is  used  as  a  pasture  grass  and  for  hay.  It  propagates 
from  the  nodes  of  the  stem  and  consequently  is  hard  to  eradicate  when 
once  started  on  wet  land;  but  in  an  irrigated  section  it  can  be  dried 
out  by  withholding  water  and  cultivating  it  down.  It  may  prove  to 
be  a  valuable  plant  for  the  hardest  soils  of  the  valley  where  alfalfa 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settler^'  crop  manual.       *  %  213 

will  not  do  well.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  can  be  cut  every  six  weeks 
or  so  during  the  summer  time.  While  it  is  sensitive  to  cold,  it  will 
withstand  any  low  temperature  likely  to  occur  in  Imperial  Valley. 

GUAVAS. 

The  common  guava  (Psidium  Guajava  pyriferum)  is  too  tender  to 
frost  to  succeed  in  the  Imperial  Valley  unless  it  be  in  some  excep- 
tional nooks  or  corners  of  the  valley  which  may  be  found  to  be  frost- 
less.  The  strawberry  guava  (P.  cattleianum)  is  somewhat  more  hardy 
to  frost  and  might  be  expected  to  grow  in  slightly  protected  situations. 
The  writer  has  not  yet  found  old  bearing  plants  in  Imperial  and  the 
question  as  to  how  the  climate  will  affect  the  fruiting  of  this  plant 
has  yet  to  be  settled.  Psidium  araca  is  reported  as  frozen  to  the 
ground  at  Brawley  during  the  winter  of  1909-10. 

HEMP. 

The  hemp  plant  (Cannabis  sativa),  has  been  found  to  grow 
thriftily  in  the  valley,  especially  after  being  somewhat  acclimatized. 
The  yield  has  not  been  carefully  determined.  The  question  of  whether 
hemp  culture  would  be  profitable  on  a  commercial  scale  will  depend 
largely  on  the  economic  conditions. 

JUJUBE   (Zisiplius  Jujube). 

Judging  from  a  single  specimen,  the  jujube,  sometimes  called  the 
Chinese  date  plum,  succeeds  quite  well.  It  bears  two  crops  of  fine 
fruit.  The  writer  observed  a  plant  near  Brawley  ten  feet  high  and 
full  of  fruit.  It  seemed  to  be  making  a  healthy  and  vigorous  growth. 
While  this  is  not  a  commercial  fruit,  it  is  an  interesting  tree  to  grow 
on  the  home  grounds  as  a  curiosity  or  as  an  ornamental. 

KAFIR  AND  EGYPTIAN  CORNS.  (See  under  Sorghum.) 
KUMQUATS. 
This  species  of  citrus  fruit  is  not  grown  in  California  to  any  great 
extent  as  a  commercial  product.  Kumquats  are  very  desirable  for 
eating  fresh  or  for  making  preserves.  They  will  grow  and  produce 
several  crops  of  fruit  a  year  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  although  they 
are  likely  to  be  killed  back  to  some  extent  some  winters  by  the  frost 
unless  protected.  The  variety  Marurni  is  said  to  be  more  hardy  to 
cold  than  the  Nagami.  Kumquats  deserve  to  be  much  more  generally 
planted  in  home  gardens. 


214 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


LEMONS. 

There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  lemons  should  not  be  grown 
in  the  Imperial  Valley  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  population 
in  the  valley.  Whether  or  not  their  culture  will  prove  profitable  on 
a  commercial  scale  it  is  difficult  to  say.  It  is  a  fairly  well  established 
fact  that  the  lemon  thrives  better  and  bears  a  much  larger  amount 


*$k 

Fig.  35. — Four-year-old  lemon  tree,  Bixby  ranch. 


of  high  priced  early  summer  fruit  when  grown  near  the  sea  or  within 
the  influence  of  the  cool,  moist  sea  breezes.  We  would  therefore 
expect  that  the  hot,  dry  climate  of  the  Imperial  Valley  would  place 
this  region  somewhat  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  coast  country.  The 
prevailing  winds  would  also  tend  to  cause  a  large  proportion  of  the 
fruit  to  be  scarred  unless  effective  windbreaks  were  used.  The  records 
of  the  Weather  Bureau  have  not  been  kept  in  the  Imperial  Valley 
for  a  sufficient  number  of  years  to  furnish  a  reliable  indication  as 
to  how  often  severe  frosts  may  be  expected. 

All  things  considered,  it  does  not  seem  wise  for  settlers  with  a 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  215 

limited  amount  of  capital  to  embark  in  commercial  lemon  culture.  It 
would  be  better  to  wait  a  few  years  for  the  State  Experiment  Station 
to  gather  data  on  experimental  plantings  and  report  on  the  likelihood 
of  the  industry  being  made  profitable.  It  is  highly  desirable,  however, 
for  everyone  to  plant  one  or  two  lemon  trees  on  their  home  grounds 
from  which  to  gather  fruit  for  home  use.  At  present  no  citrus  scales 
are  known  to  exist  in  Imperial  Valley  and  consequently  no  expensive 
fumigation  will  be  necessary.  The  most  popular  varieties  in  Cali- 
fornia are  the  Eureka  and  Lisbon. 

LETTUCE. 
Lettuce  produces  very  satisfactorily  when  grown  during  the  cooler 
part  of  the  year.    Seed  may  be  sown  in  succession  from  the  latter  part 
of  September  to  the  end  of  February.    All  varieties  so  far  grown  have 
given  satisfaction  and  seem  about  equally  adapted  to  the  region. 

LICORICE. 

The  licorice  plant  is  a  low  growing  perennial  which  spreads  rapidly 
by  underground  stolons.  It  thrives  wonderfully  in  Imperial  Valley 
and  should  be  regarded  as  a  pest  and  not  allowed  to  gain  a  foothold. 
The  high  price  of  labor  prohibits  the  profitable  digging  of  the  roots 
for  sale. 

LIME. 

Limes  are  citrus  fruits  which  are  probably  too  tender  to  frost  for 
the  Imperial  Valley,  except  perhaps  in  the  most  sheltered  situations. 
It  would  be  possible  to  grow  a  tree  for  home  use  provided  protection 
were  given  during  frosty  nights  with  a  tent  or  otherwise. 

LOQUAT. 
Loquat  trees  may  be  expected  to  grow  well  and  make  quite  orna- 
mental small  evergreen  trees.  The  trees  will  endure  much  more  cold 
than  is  likely  to  occur  in  Imperial.  They  bloom,  however,  in  mid- 
winter and  the  flowers  being  tender  to  frost  are  usually  killed,  result- 
ing in  the  tree  being  unfruitful.  Trees  budded  on  quince  stock  are 
more  resistant  to  alkali  than  when  grown  on  their  own  roots. 

MULBERRIES. 

All  varieties  of  mulberries  may  be  expected  to  grow  well  and 

produce  abundant  fruit.     They  are  valuable  for  avenue  shade  trees 

but  are  objected  to  by  many  on  account  of  the  litter  made  by  the 

dropping  fruits.     They  are  especially  useful  both  for  shade  and  fruit 


216  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

in  poultry  yards.  The  Eussian  mulberries  ripen  very  early,  while 
Black  Spanish  (Morns  nigra),  ripens  later.  The  Black  Spanish  mul- 
berries leaf  out  late  in  spring  but  they  make  an  extremely  dense  shade 
during  the  summer.  The  fruit  of  this  kind  is  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  mulberry  and  is  quite  palatable,  containing  more  acid  than  the 
insipid  Russian  kinds.  The  varieties  recommended  are  Black  Spanish, 
New  American,  Downey,  Black  Russian  and  Victoria. 

MUSKMELON. 

The  muskmelon,  or  cantaloupe  as  it  is  usually  called  in  Imperial 
Valley,  is  eminently  adapted  to  the  region  and  produces  abundant 
crops  of  high  quality,  early  fruit  which  carries  well  for  long  distances. 
Imperial  Valley  cantaloupes  have  been  shipped  extensively  to  all 
parts  of  the  east,  even  as  far  as  Boston,  Mass.  Owing  largely  to  the 
quick  money  returns  the  cantaloupe  early  became  a  popular  crop,  so 
popular  in  fact  that  the  business  was  overdone  in  1908,  when  more 
than  3,000  carloads  were  sent  out  of  the  valley.  Owing  to  various 
unfortunate  circumstances  and  the  low  price  received  for  the  product, 
much  money  was  lost  by  the  growers  that  year.  More  conservative 
plantings  and  better  methods  of  packing  have  made  possible  the 
marketing  of  subsequent  crops  at  a  fair  profit.  Melons  from  Imperial 
Valley  are  esteemed  for  their  earliness,  and  shipping  ceases  as  soon 
as  the  crops  from  other  regions  reach  the  market. 

The  soft,  sandy  soils,  free  from  alkali,  are  of  course  best  suited  for 
this  crop ;  old  alfalfa  ground  being  better  than  other  land.  The 
ground  is  plowed,  harrowed  and  irrigated  in  borders.  It  is  later  re- 
worked and  low  ridges  are  thrown  up  six  to  eight  feet  apart  and  again 
soaked  with  water.  The  seed  is  planted  from  February  10th  to  the 
first  of  March.  After  the  plants  begin  to  run  they  are  watered  every 
ten  days  or  two  weeks,  each  irrigation  being  followed  by  a  thorough 
surface  cultivation  until  the  growth  of  vines  interferes. 

The  harvest  usually  begins  about  the  middle  of  May  and  continues 
from  six  to  eight  weeks,  the  yield  varying  from  one  hundred  to  as 
high  as  three  hundred  or  more  crates  per  acre. 

The  melon  aphis  is  the  most  serious  pest  and  often  does  much 
damage.  It  often  appears  late  in  the  season,  however,  injuring  the 
later  and  less  valuable  melons  more  than  the  early  ones.  No  very  satis- 
factory remedy  has  as  yet  been  devised.  It  is  important  to  defer  the 
general  spread  of  the  aphis  as  late  as  possible  by  destroying  the  first 
scattering  colonies  as  they  appear.  This  is  best  done  by  burning  the 
vines  with  the  use  of  gasoline  or  shoveling  soil  on  the  infested  vines 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  217 


Fig.  36. — Irrigating  melon  ground  before  planting. 


Fig.  37.— Melon  field  just  after  planting. 


218  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

and  burying  them  where  they  are.  It  is  unwise  to  attempt  to  pull 
and  carry  out  of  the  field  the  infected  vines,  as  this  is  very  apt  to 
spread  the  insects.  Effective  spraying  is  very  difficult  on  account  of 
the  impossibility  of  reaching  the  aphids  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
curled  leaves.  There  is  a  native  parasite,  a  Berconid  fly,  which  de- 
stroys large  numbers,  and  the  large  numbers  of  predacious  lady  bugs 
liberated  in  the  valley  have  been  observed  to  feed  upon  them. 


Fig.  38. — Cantaloupe  packing  shed,  Brawley. 
OATS.     {See  under  Grain.) 

OLIVES. 

It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  the  olive  stands  second  only  to  the 
date  in  its  adaptability  to  the  conditions  of  the  Imperial  Valley. 
From  whatever  angle  we  view  the  question  the  olive  appears  to  have 
a  distinct  advantage.  It  will  be  strange  indeed  if  in  the  future  years 
Imperial  County  does  not  lead  all  California  counties  in  the  pro- 
duction of  olives. 

In  the  first  place,  the  home  of  the  olive  is  in  those  parts  of  northern 
Africa  and  southwestern  Asia  where  the  climatic  conditions  most 
nearly  approach  those  of  Imperial  Valley.     The  olive  tree,  therefore, 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual. 


219 


is  perfectly  at  home  in  the  valley  and  making  a  rapid  and  healthy 
growth,  comes  into  bearing  early  and  produces  heavy  crops  of  very 
high  quality  fruit.    Along  the  California  Coast  the  olive  tree  is  much 


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Fig.  39. — Mission  olive  tree  three  years 


old. 


hampered  by  the  ravages  of  the  black  scale,  but  there  is  no  black  scale 
in  the  Imperial  Valley  at  present  and  for  various  reasons  it  is  not 
likely  that  this  scale  will  ever  gain  a  foothold.  Olive  trees  are  there- 
fore clean  and  healthy  and  of  course  require  no  expensive  spray  in  o- 
or  fumigation. 


220  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

The  olive  has  another  advantage  in  that  the  crop  is  harvested 
and  manufactured  into  pickles  and  oil  during  the  delightful  fall  and 
winter  months,  when  labor  is  easier  to  secure  than  at  any  other  time 
of  year.  Then  also  the  cotton  industry  will  attract  large  numbers 
of  cotton  pickers  into  the  valley  in  the  late  summer  and  early  fall 
who  will  be  available  for  olive  picking  during  the  winter. 

In  every  arid  country  dependent  upon  irrigation  from  canals  the 
water  supply  is  occasionally  subject  to  possible  interruptions.  In 
the  case  of  citrus  or  deciduous  orchards  this  may  result  in  the  death 
of  the  trees  and  thus  the  work  of  many  years  may  be  lost.  In  the 
case  of  olives,  however,  the  fruit  falls  but  the  trees  remain  alive  even 
for  several  years  awaiting  the  return  of  irrigation  water,  when  they 
will  again  produce  profitable  crops. 

Olive  trees  are  very  long  lived.  There  are  old  orchards  in  Italy 
which  continue  to  produce  profitable  crops  at  an  age  of  several 
hundred  years.  The  outlook  for  the  increased  demand  for  olive 
products  is  becoming  brighter  as  the  country  gradually  recovers  from 
the  effects  of  the  wholesale  deception  and  fraud  used  before  the 
pure  food  laws  went  into  effect.  If  the  markets  of  the  eastern  United 
States  could  be  educated  up  to  ripe  pickles,  the  consuming  public 
would  use  pickled  olives  as  a  food  rather  than  as  a  condiment  and 
the  consumption  would  be  increased  enormously. 

All  varieties  of  olives  will  grow  well  in  Imperial  Valley,  but 
some  varieties  have  been  found  more  profitable  than  others.  Some 
varieties  are  best  for  oil  and  others  for  pickles,  but  it  has  been  found 
good  business  policy  to  operate  a  pickling  plant  in  conjunction  with 
each  oil  mill,  in  order  that  there  may  be  no  waste.  The  best  general 
purpose  variety  is  the  Mission,  originated  at  the  San  Diego  Mission, 
California,  which  is  away  ahead  of  any  other  variety  ever  tested  in 
the  arid  southwest.  Other  varieties  highly  satisfactory  for  oil  making 
are  Correggiola,  Pendulina,  Razza,  and  Nevadillo.  The  Manzanillo 
ripens  early  and  is  a  good  pickling  olive,  but  it  cannot  be  used  for  oil 
unless  it  is  mixed  with  a  large  percentage  of  the  oil  of  other  varieties. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Manzanillo  oil  becomes  turbid  at  75°  F., 
and  semi-solid  at  50-60°  F.,  thus  giving  to  certain  persons  the  impres- 
sion that  it  is  impure. 

Every  farm  home  in  the  Imperial  Valley  should  have  two  or  three 
Mission  olive  trees  from  which  to  make  sufficient  ripe  pickles  for 
home  consumption. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual. 


221 


ONIONS. 

Onions  are  very  successfully  grown  in  the  Imperial  Valley  as  a 
winter  crop.  Seed  is  planted  in  seed  beds  in  August  and  September 
and  the  small  plants  with  tops  and  roots  trimmed  are  transplanted 
in  November  and  harvested  in  March  and  April.  Soft  soil  which 
has  been  in  alfalfa  for  some  time  is  much  the  most  desirable.     The 


Fig.  40. — Field  of  winter  onions. 


crop  is  grown  on  flat  ridges  from  three  to  four  feet  wide  from  center 
to  center  with  two  rows  on  the  ridge.  Water  is  applied  plentifully 
during  the  growing  season,  but  is  gradually  withheld  as  the  harvest 
approaches,  in  order  to  secure  a  firmer  better  shipping  onion.  Culti- 
vation should  be  frequent  and  thorough.  The  crop  is  packed  in  crates 
holding  50  pounds  each  and  should  be  shipped  to  market  as  soon  as 
possible  after  harvest. 

It  has  been  found  that  more  skill  is  required  to  market  the  crop 
successfully  than  to  produce  it.  The  crop  is  easy  to  grow,  from  three 
to  four  hundred  crates  per  acre  being  a  common  yield.  The  market, 
however,  has  been  so  unstable  and  variable  that  some  years  the 
growers  realize  good  profits  and  in  other  years  they  lose  money  after 
producing  good  crops  of  onions.  It  is  hoped  that  some  system  of 
marketing  may  be  devised  which  will  place  onion  culture  on  a  more 
satisfactory  and  stable  basis. 


222 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


White  Bermuda  is  the  variety  most  generally  planted,  while 
Crystal  White  Wax  does  well,  but  is  not  quite  such  a  good  shipper. 

The  most  serious  pest  yet  encountered  is  a  species  of  thrips  found 
on  the  young  plants,  although  some  years  there  is  little  damage  done. 
Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  a  soap  or  tobacco  solution  is  the 
only  remedy  known  for  this  pest. 


Fig.  41. — Harvesting  onions  grown  between  grape  vines. 


OEANGE. 

The  question  as  to  whether  Imperial  County  will  take  its  place 
among  the  important  orange  producing  counties  of  California  is  a 
much  discussed  and  very  important  one.  There  is  no  doubt  about 
the  desirability  of  planting  sufficient  orange  trees  about  the  home 
grounds  to  produce  fruit  for  domestic  use.  The  question  arises  as 
to  whether  the  amount  of  risk  involved  in  planting  large  commercial 
orchards  and  bringing  them  into  bearing  is  balanced  by  the  likelihood 
of  profit. 

Experience  in  Imperial  Valley  as  well  as  in  the  Coachella  and  Salt 
River  Valleys  has  shown  that  the  Navel  orange  growing  in  the  dry 
air  and  bright  sunshine  of  these  localities  has  a  distinct  advantage  in 
that  it  sweetens  earlier  and  has  a  deeper  red  color  than  when  grown 
in  other  parts  of  California.  Early,  sweet,  high  colored  fruit  is  in 
active  demand  at  very  good  prices.     This  marked  advantage  is  not 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  223 

held  by  the  Valencia  Late  orange  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
culture  of  this  variety  would  be  sufficiently  profitable  to  warrant  its 
extensive  planting.  Another  advantage  held  by  the  Navel  orange  is 
that  being  picked  and  shipped  early,  the  fruit  would  not  have  to  run 
the  risk  of  being  frosted  during  the  winter. 

There  is  considerable  evidence  which  goes  to  show  that  orange  trees 
make  a  very  satisfactory  growth  and  produce  well  under  the  climatic 
conditions  of  Imperial  Valley  wherever  they  are  given  intelligent 
care.     It  is,  of  course,  important  to  plant  them  on  land  which  takes 


Fig.  42. — Second  summer's  growth  of  orange  trees  near  Imperial. 

water  readily  to  a  considerable  depth,  for  the  orange  is  quite  depend- 
ent upon  an  abundant  and  regular  water  supply.  The  tree  trunks 
should  be  given  artificial  protection  from  the  sun  in  summer  and  the 
frost  in  winter  for  the  first  year  or  two,  and  headed  low  so  that  the 
foliage  may  continue  this  protection  as  the  trees  grow  larger.  The 
humus  content  of  the  soil  should  be  increased  by  plowing  under  cover 
crops,  spoiled  alfalfa  hay,  manure  or  other  organic  refuse.  A  high 
humus  content  seems  especially  desirable  for  orange  trees. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  orange  culture  is  the  liability  of  each  locality  to  destructive 
frosts.  In  regards  to  this,  we  cannot  give  any  conclusive  data  for 
the  reason  that  the  country  is  so  new  that  Government  Weather  Rec- 
ords have  not  been  taken  for  a  sufficient  number  of  years  to  give  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  risk.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  degree  of  frosti- 
ness  varies  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  valley.     It  has  been 


224 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


reported  that  in  certain  localities  along  the  New  and  Alamo  Rivers 
that  tomato  vines  have  grown  continuously  for  several  years,  thus 
proving  the  absence  of  frost.  On  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  a 
report  from  low  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  Cameron  Lake  near  the 
International  line  of  a  temperature  of  13°  F.  occurring  on  January 
2d,  1901.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  comparative  frostiness 
of  each  locality  should  be  investigated  before  large  sums  are  invested 


Fig.  43. — Old  orange  orchard  near  Yuma,  showing  weeds  used  as  a 
mid-summer  cover  crop. 


in  citrus  culture.  For  purposes  of  comparison  the  annual  minimum 
temperatures  taken  by  the  Government  observers  at  Imperial,  Heber, 
and  Calexico  are  given  in  the  following  table :  The  figures  for  River- 
side are  included  for  the  sake  of  comparison. 


1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
]909 


Lowest  Temperature  F.  Eeached  at 

Riverside  Imperial  Calexico  Heber 

24  26 

27  28 

26  22  29 

26  24  32  25 

24  26  32  28 

27  30  32  26 

25  26  21 


Brawley 


24 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  225 

The  figures  in  this  table  should  not  be  taken  too  seriously,  for  the 
amount  of  cold  an  orange  tree  may  endure  without  injury  cannot  be 
determined  by  a  thermometer  alone  but  should  be  taken  in  connection 
with  the  degree  of  dormancy  of  the  tree  at  the  time  of  the  freeze,  the 
condition  of  the  weather  just  preceding  the  freeze,  and  the  number  of 
minutes  or  hours  during  which  the  very  low  temperatures  continue. 
It  is  the  writer's  observation  that,  considering  their  condition,  the 
scattering  orange  trees  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  taken  as  a  whole,  came 
through  the  cold  snap  of  1910  fully  as  well  as  trees  of  the  same  age 
and  size  in  the  older  orange  sections  of  Riverside  and  Redlands. 

It  has  sometimes  happened  that  citrus  trees  have  the  fruit  dis- 
figured by  the  severity  of  the  winds.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  pro- 
tect orange  orchards  by  windbreaks  of  eucalyptus  or  other  trees.  In 
old  orchards  the  windbreaks  are  not  so  necessary,  as  the  injury  is  con- 
fined largely  to  the  outside  rows.  The  young  trees  are  often  badly 
whipped  by  the  wind,  however,  and  some  protection  is  very  desirable. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  no  citrus  scale  insects  in  the  Imperial 
Valley,  and  the  County  Horticultural  Commission  is  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  preventing  any  such  pests  from  gaining  a  foothold. 
This,  of  course,  means  that  no  costly  fumigation  or  washing  and  brush- 
ing of  fruit  is  necessary,  and  one  of  the  heavy  expenses  connected 
with  the  production  or  oranges  in  many  other  parts  of  the  State  is 
entirely  obviated. 

About  the  only  serious  orange  insect  pest  in  the  valley  is  the 
thrips.  These  small  insects  scratch  the  surface  of  the  young  and  ten- 
der fruit  and  leaves,  causing  unsightly  scars  which  tend  to  reduce 
their  selling  value.  Much  investigation  work  is  at  present  being  done 
by  specialists  looking  toward  a  remedy  for  this  pest. 

As  stated  above,  the  Washington  Navel  (with  some  of  its  forms, 
such  as  the  Navelencia),  is  the  most  promising  variety  for  commercial 
planting.  Many  other  varieties,  however,  may  be  grown  in  gardens 
for  home  use,  such  as  Sweet  Seedlings,  Valencia,  Mediterranean  Sweet, 
Paper  Bind,  St.  Michael,  Ruby  Blood,  Jaffa,  Pineapple,  and  others. 
In  the  coldest  localities  in  the  Valley  the  Bigarade  or  Sour  Orange 
may  be  grown  as  an  ornamental.  A  large  number  of  trees  of  sour 
oranges  grown  in  the  yards  in  the  towns  would  add  a  distinct  attrac- 
tion and  act  as  a  suggestion  of  the  orange  orchards  in  the  more  favored 
localities. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  state  that  the  Imperial  Valley  offers  to  ex- 
perienced citrus  growers  with  considerable  capital  an  attractive  field 
for  the  cultivation  of  Navel  oranges.    We  would  not,  however,  advise 


226  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

a  new  settler  unacquainted  with  the  business  and  with  limited  capital, 
to  stake  his  all  on  a  venture  of  this  nature  where  at  present  both  the 
prospects  of  profit  and  the  uncertainties  involved  seem  large. 

PEACH. 

From  the  data  available,  it  is  clear  that  up  to  the  present  time 
peaches  have  not  been  a  great  success  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  Some 
peaches  are  grown  for  home  use,  but  a  great  many  failures  have  been 
reported.  It  seems  that  as  a  rule  those  varieties  which  put  out  leaves 
and  bloom  very  early  are  most  successful.  The  trees  grow  vigorously 
enough  and  seem  to  endure  the  climatic  conditions  well,  the  chief 
complaint  being  that  they  bear  very  little  fruit.  The  early  blooming 
varieties  are  more  susceptible  to  frost  injury,  but  they  usually  bear 
more  fruit  than  those  which  bloom  later,  when  the  air  is  so  dry  and 
hot  that  pollination  is  interfered  with.  Such  varieties  often  produce 
quantities  of  very  small,  inferior,  and  often  double  fruits  which  have 
abortive  pits.  The  trees  suffer  more  or  less  from  sunburn  of  the 
trunks,  unless  headed  very  low  and  pruned  to  thick  compact  heads. 
Crown  gall  of  the  roots  has  also  been  reported  from  several  sources 
and  there  is  at  present  no  very  satisfactory  cure  for  this  trouble. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  question  which  will  have  to  be  answered  in  the 
future,  as  to  whether  commercial  peach  culture  for  shipment  out  of 
the  valley  will  ever  be  a  paying  industry.  It  is  quite  likely,  however, 
that  the  country  will  produce  sufficient  peaches  for  home  consump- 
tion. A  large  number  of  varieties  should  be  tested  out  in  the  valley 
by  the  Experiment  Station.  It  is  also  likely  that  the  raising  and 
testing  of  peach  seedlings  in  the  valley  may  yield  new  varieties  far 
better  adapted  to  the  conditions  than  any  of  the  older  kinds.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  some  varieties  of  the  honey  peach  of  Florida  or  some 
of  their  seedlings  would  prove  successful.  Much  experimentation 
is  yet  to  be  done  with  peaches  before  their  true  adaptation  to  the 
Imperial  Valley  is  known. 

PEANUT. 

Peanuts  are  well  adapted  to  this  section,  but  so  far  have  not  been 
planted  on  any  large  commercial  scale.  They  make  a  vigorous  growth 
in  the  spring  and  summer,  maturing  in  about  five  months.  The  yield 
in  Imperial  Valley  has  not  been  measured  but  will  undoubtedly  equal 
that  of  other  good  peanut  sections  where  the  yield  varies  from  18  to 
100  bushels  per  acre.  Any  variety  will  do  well.-  The  most  common 
varieties  are  Virginia  Red,  a  Tennesee  white  variety  and  Jumbo.    The 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  227 

tops  make  good  hay  which  is  well  relished  by  stock  and  is  good  feed  for 
hogs.  Being  a  legume,  the  plant  improves  the  soil  by  adding  nitrogen. 
On  this  account  peanuts  may  prove  to  be  a  valuable  intercallary  crop. 
Seed  is  usually  planted  in  March  after  all  danger  of  frost  has 
passed.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  break  the  inner  coating  of  the 
peanut  when  shelling  it.  The  seed  is  planted  either  in  ridges  or  in 
hills,  usually  the  former,  the  furrows  being  24  to  26  inches  apart. 
The  seed  is  covered  about  2  inches  deep  and  irrigated  well  to  keep 
up  a  good  growth,  the  frequency  of  irrigation  depending  largely 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  field  should  be  cultivated  after  each 
irrigation  until  the  vines  are  too  large.  When  the  young  shoots  begin 
to  go  downward,  some  earth  should  be  shoveled  onto  the  center  of 
the  plant  to  hold  the  stems  close  to  the  ground.  If  this  is  not  done 
the  crop  is  often  a  failure.  Light  sandy  or  medium  soils  are  best 
adapted  for  peanuts. 

PEAR. 

The  data  which  has  been  collected  in  regard  to  pears  in  Imperial 
Valley  is  very  conflicting  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  to  form  a  reliable 
judgment  in  regard  to  the  future  of  this  fruit.  Wherever  proper 
care  has  been  given  the  trees,  the  reports  are  encouraging. 

In  general,  pears  seem  to  endure  well  the  climatic  conditions  and 
make  a  rather  slow  but  healthy  growth.  The  blossoms  are  seldom 
killed  by  spring  frosts  and  the  trees  bear  young  and  set  full  of  fruit 
wherever  the  proper  varieties  have  been  planted  together  and  cross 
pollination  insured.  While  a  large  number  of  varieties  bear  fruit 
of  excellent  quality,  interest  centers  chiefly  on  the  Bartlett  variety, 
which  is  the  great  pear  of  commerce.  Eeports  of  successes  and  fail- 
ures with  the  Bartlett  are  about  evenly  divided.  Bartlett  trees  may 
begin  to  bear  fruit  the  second  summer.  Some  trees  were  observed 
to  bear  from  six  to  thirty  pears  the  third  summer.  There  is  a  marked 
tendency  for  the  Bartlett  to  bloom  continually  during  the  spring  and 
summer  months,  fruit  being  found  on  some  trees  in  all  stages,  from 
blossoms  to  ripe  fruit  as  late  as  October  10th. 

Some  trees,  said  to  be  of  the  Winter  Bartlett  variety,  bear  well, 
the  fruit  being  ready  to  harvest  the  middle  of  December.  The  Made- 
line and  Clapp's  Favorite  are  summer  varieties  too  soft  for  shipment 
but  very  desirable  for  home  use.  The  Keiffer  and  LeConte  ripen  in 
July  and  August  and  may  be  expected  to  bear  well. 

The  variety  which  has  proved  more  generally  satisfactory  than 
any  other  shipping  pear  in  the  Colorado  and  Salt  River  Valleys  of 
Arizona  is  the  Winter  Nelis.    Trees  of  this  variety  grow  to  be  of  large 


228  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

size  and  produce  regularly.  The  fruit  ships  well  and  coming  at  a 
time  where  there  are  few  pears  on  the  market  usually  brings  good 
prices. 

There  have  been  no  reports  of  pear  blight  in  the  Valley  up  to  date, 
although  it  would  not  be  safe  to  say  that  it  does  not  exist  there.  It 
is  to  be  expected,  however,  that  on  account  of  the  dryness  of  the  air 
and  the  brightness  of  the  sunlight,  this  disease  which  is  so  destructive 
in  moister  regions  will  cause  relatively  little  loss  in  Imperial  Valley. 

PEAS. 

Garden  peas  do  very  well  during  the  cooler  parts  of  the  year, 
but  do  not  endure  the  heat  of  late  spring  or  summer.  The  seed  can 
be  planted  any  time  after  the  first  of  September  until  February,  the 
best  time  being  September  or  October,  when  green  peas  can  be  had 
by  November  or  early  December.  A  good  many  of  the  plantings  were 
killed  or  injured  last  year  (1909)  during  the  coldest  weather.  They 
should  receive  plenty  of  water,  the  usual  practice  being  to  irrigate 
every  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  the  amount  of  water  applied  depending 
a  good  deal  upon  the  physical  nature  of  the  soil.  The  medium  soft 
soil  produces  the  best  results.  The  seeds  are  usually  planted  in  rows 
from  2  to  3%  feet  apart ;  sometimes  two  rows  being  planted  on  one 
ridge. 

The  Yorkshire  Hero  is  the  most  commonly  planted,  although  Tele- 
phone, Stratagem,  Gradis,  and  Champion  of  England  all  give  good 
results. 

It  is  possible  that  the  raising  of  winter  peas  for  shipment  north 
and  east  and  even  for  canning  may  assume  large  proportions  in  future. 

PECAN. 
The  pecan  is  native  to  the  moist  alluvial  lands  along  the  river 
bottoms  of  southern  States.  While  it  is  distinctly  out  of  place  in 
Imperial  Valley,  dooryard  trees  may  be  grown  and  a  good  quality  of 
nuts  produced,  provided  an  abundance  of  water  is  supplied.  On 
account  of  the  cost  of  land  and  water  it  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to 
attempt  to  grow  pecans  for  sale  and  thus  compete  with  the  cheap 
wild  lands  of  the  south.  Seedling  trees  seem  to  make  a  better  growth 
than  grafted  trees,  although  the  reason  for  this  is  not  obvious  and 
the  question  has  not  been  subjected  to  an  accurate  test. 

PEPPER. 
Red  Peppers  or  Chili  are  well  adapted  to  Imperial  Valley,  but  up 
to  date  not  enough  have  been  produced  in  the  Valley  to  supply  local 
markets. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers  '  crop  manual.  229 

The  seed  is  planted  in  hotbeds  in  January  and  as  soon  as  danger 
of  frosts  is  past  the  seedlings  are  transplanted  into  permanent  rows 
in  the  field.  The  pepper  requires  much  water  and  during  mid-summer 
should  be  irrigated  weekly.  Picking  begins  the  latter  part  of  June 
and  continues  until  frost  kills  the  plants  in  the  fall.  Medium  soft 
soil  comparatively  free  from  alkali  is  best,  for  the  pepper  plant  is 
quite  sensitive  to  alkali. 

No  insects  or  diseases  have  so  far  been  reported. 

PERSIMMONS. 

Information  concerning  persimmons  in  the  Imperial  Valley  is 
very  meagre,  very  few  trees  having  ever  been  planted.  It  is  the  opin- 
ion of  the  writer,  unsupported  by  data,  that  most  of  the  cultivated 
varieties  of  American  persimmons,  such  as  the  Josephine,  Miller,  and 
Lonestar,  will  succeed  fairly  well,  provided  plenty  of  water  and  rea- 
sonable care  is  given  them. 

Mr.  F.  Heiny  of  Brawley  has  tested  two  of  the  Japanese  varieties, 
the  Tane  Nashi  and  Hashia,  and  reports  that  both  do  well,  producing 
abundant  fruit  of  good  size  and  fine  flavor. 

PINEAPPLE. 

The  pineapple  succeeds  best  in  a  tropical  and  sea-coast  climate, 
where  the  air  is  laden  with  moisture  from  the  sea  and  frosts  are  absent 
or  very  light.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  pineapple  would 
be  decidedly  out  of  place  in  the  dry  air  and  hot  sunshine  of  the 
Imperial  Valley.  It  is  very  doubtful  as  to  whether  the  plants  can 
thrive  and  fruit  in  the  open  ground.  It  may  be  possible  to  construct 
shelters  covered  on  the  top  and  sides  with  muslin  which  may  screen 
out  part  of  the  light  and  withhold  a  part  of  the  moisture  evaporating 
from  the  soil.  Under  such  artificial  conditions  it  may  be  possible  to 
grow  the  plants  to  fruiting.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  the 
cost  of  the  crop  grown  under  such  conditions  would  far  exceed  its 
market  value. 

PLUMS   AND   PRUNES. 

The  different  species  of  plums,  and  even  in  some  cases  the  different 
varieties,  react  very  differently  to  the  climatic  conditions  and  environ- 
ment of  Imperial  Valley.  Very  much  work  in  testing  varieties  and 
new  seedlings  has  yet  to  be  done  before  anything  approaching  a  com- 
plete report  can  be  made.  The  remarks  following  should  be  taken  as 
a  summary  of  indications  based  on  such  evidence  as  is  available  at 
the  present  time. 


230  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

As  a  rule,  the  varieties  derived  from  American  and  Asiatic  species 
and  hybrids  between  these  species  succeed  much  better  than  the 
European  varieties.  Such  varieties  as  Lombard,  Bradshaw  and  the 
various  prunes  either  fail  entirely  or  produce  so  little  fruit  as  to 
be  unprofitable.  On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  American  and 
Japanese  plums  succeed  admirably  and  produce  heavy  crops. 

The  variety  which  has  been  observed  to  succeed  best  is  the  Mari- 
anna,  which  is  a  hybrid  of  Myrobalan  and  Chickasaw.  This  is  a  small 
red  plum  ripening  in  early  May,  which  is  especially  suitable  for 
jellies  and  preserves.  It  grows  readily  from  cuttings.  Other  promis- 
ing varieties  which  are  suggested  for  trial  as  likely  to  be  profitable 
are :  Red  June,  Satsuma,  Doris,  Gonzales,  McCartney,  El  Paso,  Wild- 
goose,  Wickson,  Climax,  Chalco,  Burbank  and  Chabot. 

All  plum  trees  in  Imperial  Valley  should  be  headed  low  and 
pruned  so  as  to  provide  shade  for  the  trunks  and  main  branches. 
The  two  great  foes  of  the  plum  in  the  eastern  states,  the  curculio 
and  brown  rot,  are  not  known  in  Imperial.  The  roots  are  subject 
to  crown  gall  disease,  though  not  to  a  serious  degree.  Plum  culture 
in  the  Imperial  Valley  appears  to  us  as  an  inviting  field  for  experi- 
ment. 

POMEGEANATE. 

The  pomegranate,  coming  as  it  does  from  Palestine  and  northern 
Africa,  finds  a  congenial  home  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  The  plant 
thrives  wonderfully  and  fruits  heavily,  not  being  over  particular  as 
to  soil  or  a  moderate  amount  of  alkali.  It  will  live  without  water  for 
a  considerable  time,  but  fruits  best  when  well  irrigated.  No  especial 
pests  of  this  plant  have  been  reported,  about  the  only  trouble  encount- 
ered being  a  cracking  and  splitting  of  the  fruit  just  before  maturing. 
All  varieties  succeed,  but  the  variety  called  "Wonderful"  is  the  most 
handsome  and  prolific  known  by  the  writer.  The  plants  strike  root 
readily  from  cuttings  and  are  therefore  very  easily  propagated. 

Americans  do  not  seem  to  appreciate  this  delicious  and  refreshing 
fruit  as  the  Mexicans  do,  and  it  is  as  yet  hardly  known  in  the  northern 
markets.  It  is  quite  likely  that  with  a  little  enterprise  shown  in 
packing  and  marketing,  that  this  fruit  would  find  a  market  at  least 
for  purposes  of  decoration.  They  would  reach  general  consumption 
later  as  the  people  grew  to  know  them.  However,  be  this  as  it  may, 
it  is  certain  that  any  family  living  in  Imperial  Valley  and  failing  to 
grow  a  few  pomegranates  for  home  use  is  missing  one  of  the  oppor- 
tunities of  the  country. 


BULLETIN  210.     IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


231 


POMELO    {Grape  Fruit.) 

What  was  said  in  regard  to  the  growth  of  oranges  will  apply  almost 
equally  to  pomelos.  There  are  a  number  of  thrifty  and  productive 
dooryard  trees  bearing  fruit  in  the  valley,  but  no  commercial  orchards 


Fig.  44. — Pomelo  tree  in  fourth  summer.    Date  seedlings  in  the  foreground. 


have  been  planted.  So  far  as  known,  pomelo  trees  in  Imperial  Valley 
have  no  serious  insect  pests.  The  fruit  ripens  rather  early,  is  of  fair 
quality  and  could  no  doubt  be  disposed  of  to  advantage  in  the  north- 
western markets.  Desirable  varieties  are  Marsh's  Seedless,  Duncan 
and  Triumph. 


232  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

POTATO    (Irish  Potato.) 

As  yet,  most  of  the  Irish  potatoes  consumed  in  Imperial  Valley 
are  shipped  in  from  the  coast,  for  the  climate  is  not  well  adapted  to 
the  culture  of  this  crop.  The  potato  plant  being  sensitive  both  to  the 
cold  of  winter  and  the  heat  of  summer  has  a  very  short  season  in 
which  to  mature.  They  may  be  grown  either  in  the  spring  or  fall, 
spring  being  preferable. 

Soft  soil  is  of  course  best,  but  a  fair  quality  of  tubers  may  be  pro- 
duced on  the  heavy  soils.  The  seed  is  planted  about  the  first  of 
February  in  soil  still  moist  from  previous  irrigation.  The  ground 
is  watered  soon  after  planting  and  again  after  the  plants  appear. 
Plenty  of  water  is  given  during  the  growth  of  the  vines,  but  it  is 
gradually  withheld  as  the  plants  near  maturity. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  potatoes  for  seed  over  the 
winter;  in  fact,  the  crop  should  be  harvested  and  consumed  as  soon 
after  maturity  as  possible  to  prevent  loss  from  rapid  decay. 

The  yield  is  usually  light  as  compared  with  other  regions,  but 
some  heavy  crops  have  been  reported.  The  varieties  commonly  grown 
are  Burpee's  Extra  Early,  Early  White  Rose,  Triumph  and  Salinas. 

PEUNES    (See  under  Plums.) 

PUMPKIN. 
Although  but  little  grown,  the  pumpkin  is  well  adapted  to  the 
country.  If  planted  in  June  or  July  the  vines  will  grow  throughout 
the  summer  and  mature  fruit  before  frost.  We  are  unable  to  secure 
data  on  varieties  as  the  pumpkins  grown  in  the  valley  were  not 
grown  under  name.     They  are  used  chiefly  as  a  supplementary  food 

for  milch  cows. 

QUINCE. 

Quinces  flourish  and  produce  heavily  in  Imperial  Valley  whenever 
they  are  given  sufficient  water.  They  withstand  admirably  the  heat 
of  summer  provided  they  are  headed  low  and  so  pruned  as  to  pro- 
vide shade  for  the  trunk.  Quinces  are  not  overly  particular  as  to 
the  quality  of  soil  and  are  quite  resistant  to  alkali. 

So  far  as  known,  quinces  have  never  been  injured  by  the  cold  of 
winter  and  it  is  very  rare  that  their  blossoms  are  killed  by  spring 
frosts.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  used  almost  exclusively  for 
.jellies  and  preserves,  there  is  not  a  great  demand  for  the  fruit  on 
the  open  market.  Abundant  fruit  for  local  markets  and  home  use 
may,  however,  be  produced  with  ease.  Varieties  suggested  are  Orange, 
Champion,  Smyrna,  Meeeirs  Prolific,  Rea's  Mammoth  and  Pineapple. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  233 

EADDISH. 
All  kinds  of  radishes  so  far  tested  seem  to  do  exceedingly  well 
when  grown  during  the  cool  part  of  the  year.  Seed  may  be  sown 
in  succession  from  late  August  till  April.  Fair  yields  are  usually 
secured  and  no  particular  skill  is  required  to  grow  the  crop.  Soft 
soil  is,  of  course,  most  desirable. 

EASPBEEEIES. 
Easpberries  are  native  to  cool  countries  with  a  humid  atmosphere. 
They  are  very  difficult  to  grow  in  the  Imperial  Valley  and  all  attempts 
to  grow  them,  so  far  reported,  have  failed. 

EHUBAEB. 
Rhubarb  makes  a  fair  growth  in  winter  but  the  plants  die  out 
in  summer  unless  considerable  expense  is  incurred  to  shade  and  protect 
them  from  the  hot  sun.    In  fact,  rhubarb  is  so  out  of  place  in  Imperial 
Valley  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  attempt  to  grow  it. 

EICE. 
In  1904  some  rice  was  grown  in  Imperial  Valley  as  an  experiment 
and  seemed  to  be  a  partial  success.  The  rice  plant  will  endure  the 
climatic  conditions  very  well  but  it  requires  large  amounts  of  water. 
Whether  rice  culture  will  ever  amount  to  anything  will  depend  largely 
on  the  economic  conditions. 

EOSELLE. 

This  is  a  plant  long  cultivated  in  India  for  its  fiber,  but  recently 
introduced  into  this  country  and  cultivated  for  the  red  fleshy  calyces 
which  are  used  in  making  a  fine  quality  of  jellies  and  jams.  Sauce 
made  from  it  may  displace  cranberry  sauce.  It  is  an  annual  plant, 
somewhat  resembling  cotton  in  size  and  manner  of  growth.  It  is  well 
suited  to  the  conditions  in  Imperial  and  has  been  reported  as  making 
a  very  satisfactory  growth  and  producing  well.  No  pests  are  at  present 
known  and  the  plant  deserves  a  wider  planting. 

Seed  should  be  sown  in  beds  under  cover  and  the  plants  set  out 
as  early  as  danger  from  frosts  is  over.  The  product  is  harvested  in 
October,  November  and  until  the  plants  are  killed  by  hard  frosts. 

SALT  BUSH. 
The  Australian  Salt  Bush  (Atriplex  semibaccata)  is  well  adapted 
to  the  climate  and  has  produced  well  wherever  tried.     It  is  fairly 
drouth  resistant,  but  its  special  value  lies  in  its  resistance  to  alkali. 


234  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

It  will  grow  well  on  lands  which  are  too  salty  for  alfalfa.  As  a  forage 
crop  it  is  of  course  inferior  to  alfalfa,  but  is  fairly  well  relished  by 
sheep  and  by  stock  when  mixed  with  alfalfa  or  other  hay.  It  is  not 
recommended,  however,  as  a  desirable  crop  on  good  soil. 

SESBANIA. 

Colorado  Hemp  (Sesbania  macrocarpa)  is  a  plant  native  in 
marshy  land  from  Pennsylvania  through  Texas,  Arizona,  and  Mexico 
to  Panama.  The  conditions  along  the  Colorado  River  are  unusually 
good  for  this  plant  and  almost  impenetrable  jungles  of  it  cover  large 
areas  of  the  delta  lands.  It  grows  ten  or  more  feet  high  and,  being 
a  legume,  bears  large  nodules  on  its  roots.  It  requires  a  great  deal 
of  water.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the  strong 
fibre  in  the  stems  but  perhaps  on  account  of  the  lack  of  effective 
decorticating  machinery  these  attempts  failed. 

This  plant  should  be  tried  as  an  orchard  cover  crop.  Although 
it  makes  a  very  tall  growth  the  stalks  are  easily  reduced  to  fineness 
by  a  drag  and  disc  harrow.     Seed  should  be  sown  in  July. 

SORGHUMS 
Broom   Corn  Durras 

Kafir  Corn  Sweet  Sorghums 

The  sorghums  are  all  well  adapted  to  Imperial  Valley  and  are 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent.  Unlike  Indian  corn,  they  thrive  best 
during  the  hot  summer  months  and  do  well  on  all  soils,  unless  alkali 
is  unusually  strong.  The  medium  loam  gives  the  best  results.  Frost 
prevents  growth  in  the  late  fall  or  winter.  The  seeds  germinate  from 
the  first  of  April  until  November  and  can  be  planted  any  time  after 
the  daily  temperature  reaches  85°  or  above  until  the  last  of  July.  If 
forage  only  is  desired,  August  would  not  be  too  late.  The  middle  of 
June  is  the  most  common  time  for  planting.  Sorghums  often  follow 
a  spring  crop  such  as  barley  or  cantaloupes.  The  yield  varies  from 
one  to  four  tons  of  fodder  per  acre,  or  from  1,000  to  2,500  pounds  of 
grain.  When  unthreshed  the  yield  is  from  one  to  one  and  three- 
fourths  tons  per  acre. 

Sorghum  fodder  is  inferior  to  alfalfa  hay  but  is  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  it  during  the  hot  summer  months.  The  cost  of  raising  this 
crop  is  slight  as  it  needs  little  attention.  Proper  care,  however,  pays 
in  larger  and  better  yields.  Two  or  three  cultivations  with  less  fre- 
quent irrigations  would  improve  results,  although  the  cost  of  labor 
during  the  summer  months  may  prohibit  such   practice.      The  cost 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  235 

of  harvesting  the  seed  is  sometimes  excessive,  as  the  heads  have  to  be 
cut  by  hand  and  on  this  account  it  is  coming  to  be  used  more  for  fod- 
der than  for  grain. 

The  seed  is  usually  drilled  in  rows  3  feet  to  3%  feet  apart  and 
from  6  inches  to  18  inches  in  the  rows,  when  grown  for  grain.  It  is 
sown  broadcast  or  drilled  when  the  fodder  is  to  be  cut  or  when  the 
field  is  to  be  pastured.  The  seed  can  be  planted  with  the  ordinary 
grain  drill  when  a  thick  stand  is  desired  by  stopping  up  the  alternate 
holes.  From  3  to  6  pounds  of  seed  are  used  when  drilled  and  from  6 
to  15  when  broadcasted.  The  seed  bed  should  be  well  prepared  by 
plowing  and  thorough  discing,  although  seed  is  often  planted  on  old 
barley  land  by  simply  discing  the  seed  in  after  broadcasting. 

Irrigation  usually  proceeds  and  follows  seeding  and  whenever  the 
plants  show  a  need  thereafter.  It  is  well  to  keep  the  soil  well  moist- 
ened during  the  first  month  of  growth,  as  the  sorghums  all  start  slowly. 
Three  thorough  irrigations,  given  when' the  plants  are  young  and  again 
when  they  head  out,  have  proved  satisfactory  on  sandy  loam  where 
the  moisture  has  been  well  conserved.  On  other  soils  irrigations  come 
every  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  Too  much  irrigation  often  induces  too 
much  growth  of  stalk.  The  sorghums  will  stand  some  drouth  and  will 
start  growth  immediately  on  the  application  of  water.  The  best 
growth  and  yield  comes  when  the  growth  is  uniform  throughout  the 
season.  The  plants  will  endure  much  more  alkali  than  alfalfa.  The 
crop  responds,  however,  to  good  soil  and  to  good  treatment. 

Small  black  flea  beetles  often  attack  the  young  plants  and  do  some 
damage  at  that  time.  No  remedy  is  known  at  present.  Blackbirds 
and  turtledoves  take  a  good  deal  of  the  grain  of  the  White  Egyptian 
Corn. 

Broom  Corn. — Broom  corn  has  been  grown  here  in  a  number  of 
small  patches  and  has  made  a  strong  growth  of  head  and  produced 
a  good  yield  when  properly  handled.  Both  the  dwarf  and  the  standard 
varieties  have  proved  successful.  The  expense  of  producing  and 
marketing  it  in  the  face  of  uncertain  prices  has  been  the  main  factor 
in  preventing  its  culture  on  a  large  commercial  scale.  An  average 
yield  of  400  pounds  of  brush  has  been  secured  from  the  dwarf  corn. 

Kafir  Com. — The  White,  Red  and  Black-hulled  Kafir  corns  are 
all  grown  here,  but  the  Red  predominates.  It  furnishes  the  best  crop 
of  all  non-saccharine  sorghums  for  fodder,  as  the  leaves  are  large  and 
numerous  and  the  grain  yields  well.  The  seed  matures  in  12  to  14 
weeks  but  the  stalks  remain  green  much  longer,  which  gives  it  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  Durras  or  the  saccharine  sorghums  for  fodder.     The 


236  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

field  should  be  cut  when  the  grain  is  ripening  and  allowed  to  cure  to 
get  the  best  fodder.  The  kafirs  are  seldom  cut  for  the  grain.  Ten 
to  twelve  pounds  of  seed  are  usually  broadcasted  and  harrowed  in. 
When  drilled  three  to  six  pounds  are  sufficient. 

Sweet  Sorghums. — The  early  Orange  and  the  Early  Amber  are 
the  most  common  of  the  Saccharine  Sorghums.  Any  of  the  six  or 
eight  varieties  will  do  well,  however.  Good  syrup  can  be  made  but 
most  of  the  sorghum  is  used  for  pasture,  soiling  or  forage.  The  heads 
are  not  generally  harvested  for  the  grain  as  the  seeds  are  small  and 
the  percentage  of  hulls  to  grain  is  rather  large  and  the  hulls  are  some- 
what astringent.  "When  used  for  soiling,  the  best  results  are  obtained 
by  cutting  when  almost  mature.  The  second  growth  sorghum  (if  at  all 
stunted)  is  apt  to  poison  stock  on  account  of  the  relatively  high  con- 
tent of  prussic  acid.  The  poisoning  does  not  generally  occur  if  the 
sorghum  is  in  good  growing  condition.  Injury  to  land  for  future 
plantings  of  barley  is  often  reported.  The  reason  for  this  injury  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  is  probably  due  to  shallow  plowing  before 
planting  the  barley.  The  numerous  surface  roots  of  the  sorghum 
decay  slowly  and  may  possibly  have  a  poisonous  effect.  Alfalfa  is 
not  injured  in  the  least,  in  fact,  sorghum  is  considered  a  good  crop 
to  precede  a  planting  of  alfalfa. 

Durras. — The  yellow  or  dwarf  Milo  Maize,  White  Durra  or  Egyp- 
tian Corn  and  the  Brown  Durra  all  do  well  and  are  generally  grown 
for  grain  rather  than  for  forage.  The  heads  are  larger  and  the  seeds 
larger  and  softer  than  those  of  kafir  corn  or  sorghum,  but  the  stalks 
are  less  leafy  and  more  mature  and  dry  when  the  seed  ripens  than 
are  the  stalks  of  kafir  or  sorghum.  Twenty  pounds  of  alfalfa  and 
eight  to  nine  pounds  of  corn  form  a  splendid  feed  for  dairy  cows.  The 
heads  of  the  Durras  are  pendent  which  makes  harvesting  rather  diffi- 
cult. The  stover  is  of  little  value.  The  Dwarf  Milo  is  the  most  popu- 
lar, as  the  heads  are  lower  and  more  easily  cut ;  the  seed  does  not 
shatter  and  the  yield  of  seed  is  good.  The  unevenness  of  the  height  of 
stalks  in  thin  planting  makes  harvesting  difficult.  This  condition  can 
be  partially  remedied  by  thick  planting,  which  makes  the  stand  more 
uniform  and  the  percentage  of  pendent  heads  less.  The  heads  are 
usually  fed  unthreshed.  The  White  Durra  or  Egyptian  yields  the 
best  and  the  grains  are  larger  and  better  liked  than  the  Milo  Maize, 
but  the  easy  shattering  of  the  seeds  and  the  amount  lost  through  at- 
tacks by  birds,  especially  the  blackbirds  and  turtledoves,  make  it  less 
desirable  than  Milo.     The  Brown  Durra  is  little  grown. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  VALLEY  settlers'  CROP  MANUAL.  237 

SPINACH. 

This  delicious  vegetable  may  be  grown  during  fall,  winter  and 
early  spring  with  the  greatest  ease.  It  does  best  on  soft  land  which 
has  been  well  manured.  Seed  may  be  planted  from  early  September 
to  February.  It  requires  an  abundance  of  water.  All  varieties  do 
well. 

SQUASH. 

The  squashes  are  quite  tender  to  frost  but  resistant  to  heat.  Both 
the  bush  and  running  varieties  may  be  planted  in  late  February  or 
early  March.  They  require  soft,  rich  land  with  plenty  of  water  for 
best  development.  Growth  is  checked  somewhat  by  the  dry  hot 
weather  of  June  and  July,  but  some  kinds,  especially  the  running 
varieties,  will  live  over  the  summer  and  produce  a  second  crop  in 
the  fall.  The  summer  squashes,  such  as  Yellow  Crookneck  and  Mam- 
moth "White  Bush,  do  much  better  than  the  winter  squashes  commonly 
grown  in  the  north. 

STKAWBERKIES. 

Successful  strawberry  culture  in  the  Imperial  Valley  is  beset  with 
difficulties  and  a  great  deal  of  skill  is  required  to  produce  berries  on 
a  commercial  scale  at  a  profit.  Those  who  acquire  the  necessary  skill, 
however,  may  grow  good  crops  of  strawberries  of  high  quality.  There 
is  not  so  great  an  incentive  to  grow  strawberries  in  Imperial  as  there 
is  in  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Arizona,  for  the  reason  that  large 
quantities  are  shipped  in  from  the  coast  and  sold  at  very  reasonable 
prices.  Still  fresh,  plump,  home-grown  berries  command  a  consider- 
able premium  over  the  coast  grown  product.  In  most  situations  there 
are  too  many  frosts  to  permit  of  winter  berries  and  the  regular  spring 
crop  does  not  ripen  very  much  earlier  than  the  crop  on  the  coast. 

The  strawberry  plant  grows  thriftily  throughout  the  winter,  but 
it  is  always  difficult  to  carry  young  plants  through  the  heated  summer 
season.  February  is  the  best  time  to  set  young  plants.  One  of  the 
most  important  requirements  is  a  constant  water  supply.  Strawberries 
should  be  irrigated  at  least  once  a  week  and,  if  possible,  every  four  or 
six  days.  After  the  plants  are  well  established  they  will  continue  to 
bear  well  for  four  or  five  years. 

It  is  also  very  important  to  select  varieties  which  have  been  found 
to  do  well  in  the  region.  Such  varieties  are  very  few  in  number. 
The  Arizona  Experiment  Station  made  an  exhaustive  test  of  straw- 
berry varieties  and  the  experience  so  far  gained  by  Imperial  Valley 
growers  shows  that  the  Arizona  findings  are  in  the  main  correct  and 


238 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


-2 


ggjBj. 


"OJ& 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  239 

applicable  to  Imperial  conditions.  Perhaps  the  most  generally  satis- 
factory variety  is  the  Arizona  Everbearing,  which  may  be  harvested 
from  January  to  May.  The  Lady  Thompson  is  good  but  the  picking 
season  lasts  but  three  to  four  weeks.  Other  desirable  varieties  are 
Michel's  Early,  Texas  and  Excelsior.  Growers  report  that  such  varie- 
ties as  the  Brandywine  grown  so  largely  on  the  coast  die  out  entirely 
during  the  first  summer. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  discussion  that  it  is  extremely  un- 
likely that  strawberries  will  ever  be  grown  for  shipment  out  of  the 
Valley,  and  there  will  probably  not  be  very  many  grown  for  local 
markets.  Those  who  insist  on  growing  strawberries  in  the  Imperial 
valley,  and  there  will  probably  not  be  very  many  grown  for  local 
and  develop  sufficient  skill  in  watering  and  handling  the  crop. 

SUGAE  CANE. 
Sugar  cane,  or  ribbon  cane,  has  been  tried  on  a  small  scale  and 
has  proved  quite  satisfactory.  No  large  area  has  been  planted  on  a 
commercial  scale  as  yet,  partly  on  account  of  the  existing  economic 
conditions,  but  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  it  would  pay  in  a  small 
way  if  a  market  for  the  fresh  cane  was  near.  The  Florida  cane  is  the 
only  kind  planted  so  far.  Sugar  cane  is  very  successfully  propagated 
by  planting  the  eyes  or  joints,  as  is  done  in  the  south.  The  sugar 
content  is  reported  high  and  some  excellent  home-made  syrup  has 
been  produced.  Sugar  cane  stands  considerable  alkali  and  does  well 
on  both  medium  hard  and  medium  soft  soils.  The  irrigation  of  sugar 
cane  is  practically  the  same  as  for  sorghum. 

SWEET  POTATOES. 

Sweet  Potatoes  grow  exceedingly  well  in  Imperial  Valley ;  so  well, 
in  fact,  that  they  are  considered  as  weeds  by  some  people.  The  roots 
often  live  over  in  the  soil  for  several  years  and  continue  to  grow  until 
they  assume  tremendous  proportions  and  are  fit  subjects  to  cause  won- 
derment at  any  county  fair.  Such  holdovers  are  woody,  however, 
and  unfit  for  food.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  small  potatoes  left 
in  the  soil  sprout  up  continually  from  year  to  year  and  are  difficult 
to  eradicate  from  gardens  and  along  ditches. 

The  seed  potatoes  are  planted  in  subheated  beds  in  February  and 
set  out  into  the  field  when  the  slips  are  large  enough.  Soft  land  is 
much  the  best,  as  hard  soil  causes  the  potatoes  to  be  very  rough  and 
misshapen.  No  serious  pests  have  been  reported  so  far.  All  varieties 
seem  to  succeed.  Those  commonly  grown  are  White  Vineless  Yam, 
Southern  Queen,   Shanghai,  Jersey  Red,  Yellow  Jersey  and  others. 


240  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


TOBACCO. 

Tobacco  has  been  tried  in  a  small  experimental  way  in  Imperial 
Valley,  but  it  has  not  been  grown  sufficiently  to  warrant  commercial 
plantings.  In  the  tests  made  Sumatra  and  Cuban  made  a  fair  growth 
and  produced  a  leaf  of  fine  quality.  Great  damage  is  done  by  the 
wind  in  whipping  the  leaves  to  pieces. 

TOMATOES. 

The  spring  and  fall  climate  of  Imperial  Valley  is  well  suited  to 
the  growing  of  tomatoes;  although  the  plants  are  sensitive  to  the 
intense  heat  of  July  and  August  they  will  live  through  this  period  and 
start  a  fresh  growth  in  the  fall.  The  plants  are  also  sensitive  to  cold, 
but  will  not  be  killed  except  by  temperatures  below  32°.  Dwarf 
Champion  and  Stone  are  the  varieties  chiefly  grown.  The  Earliana 
is  apt  to  sunburn;  the  Bulgaria  has  not  given  very  good  results. 

Tomatoes  are  generally  started  in  covered  seed  beds  in  well  pre- 
pared soft  soil,  but  are  sometimes  planted  directly  in  the  field.  In 
Arizona  this  proved  to  be  the  best  practice,  as  the  transplanted  toma- 
toes lose  all  they  gain  in  the  early  growth  due  to  the  check  following 
transplanting.  They  are  usually  planted  in  the  early  spring,  some- 
times as  early  as  February  and  usually  before  the  first  of  May.  If 
started  in  seed  beds  transplanting  takes  place  in  a  month  or  six  weeks, 
when  the  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  high.  They  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  rather  large,  so  that  the  stems  will  be  slightly  woody  before 
transplanting.  The  plants  are  set  out  in  rows  from  four  to  six  feet 
.apart  and  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  the  row.  Tomatoes 
should  receive  plenty  of  water  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth,  but  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  scald  the  young  plants  on  hot  days.  Damping 
off  is  uncommon.  If  plants  go  too  much  to  vine  it  is  well  to  partially 
cut  off  the  water  to  make  them  start  fruit  buds.  If  planted  early, 
tomatoes  begin  to  set  fruit  in  the  first  part  of  the  summer,  the  first 
tomatoes  ripening  about  the  middle  of  May  and  continuing  well  into 
July,  when  the  hot  weather  precludes  further  growth  until  the  latter 
part  of  August.  The  fall  blossoms  appear  the  latter  part  of  September 
and  picking  can  begin  about  December  first  and  continue  on  through 
the  winter  or  until  the  vines  are  killed  by  the  frost.  Soft  sandy  soil 
is  best  adapted  for  tomatoes,  although  good  growth  is  made  on  medium 
hard  soil.  The  corn  ear  worm  does  some  damage  and  the  large  tomato 
worm  does  considerable  injury  to  the  plants. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  241 

TUKNIP. 
Turnips  easily  endure  the  cold  of  winter,  but  are  killed  by  the 
heat  of  summer.  They  are  therefore  very  easily  grown  during  the 
cool  part  of  the  year,  their  culture  being  very  simple.  Seed  is  planted 
at  any  time  from  October  to  March,  either  in  rows  and  watered 
through  furrows  or  broadcasted  and  flooded.  They  require  an  abund- 
ance of  water  in  order  to  grow  rapidly  and  produce  crisp  tender  roots. 
No  serious  pests  have  been  reported.     All  varieties  succeed. 

VELVET  BEAN  (See  under  Bean.) 

VETCH. 
Common  vetch  (Vicia  sativa)  has  been  tried  in  the  valley  with 
variable  results.  Some  report  success  and  others  a  failure.  As  the 
plant  is  killed  by  very  hot  weather  it  should,  of  course,  be  grown  dur- 
ing the  winter,  being  planted  in  October  or  early  November.  Much 
experimentation  is  yet  to  be  done  with  this  plant.  If  it  can  be  made 
to  grow  it  will  be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  winter  leguminous 
cover  crops  for  orchards. 

WALNUTS. 

English  walnuts  are  very  poorly  adapted  to  the  Imperial  climate. 
They  thrive  best  near  the  Coast  where  the  sea  breezes  are  damp  and 
cool.  A  few  specimens  of  the  English  walnut  have  been  planted  in 
the  valley  and  they  seen  to  be  making  some  growth,  although  the 
foliage  sunburns  badly.  It  is  likely  that  when  the  trees  begin  to 
fruit  the  nuts  will  also  sunburn  and  the  meats  turn  dark.  Sunburn 
causes  the  hulls  to  adhere  so  closely  to  the  nuts  that  they  have  to  be 
hulled  by  hand. 

It  is  likely  that  trees  of  the  native  Arizona  black  walnut  (Juglans 
rupestris)  may  be  grown  fairly  successfully  for  ornament  and  shade. 

WATEEMELON. 
Watermelons  are  well  suited  to  the  Imperial  Valley.  The  vines 
grow  vigorously  and  produce  abundantly  of  high  quality  melons.  Seed 
is  planted  in  March  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  the  subsequent 
treatment  being  much  the  same  as  for  cantaloupes,  (which  see). 
Watermelons  are  grown  extensively  for  home  use  and  local  markets, 
but  commercial  shipments  out  of  the  valley  are  limited  to  the  earliest 
markets.  The  first  shipments  are  usually  made  during  the  last  week 
in  June. 


242  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

The  quality  of  the  melons  is  very  good  at  first,  but  deteriorates 
during  the  very  hot  weather  of  July.  Sometimes  the  vines  are  cut 
back  in  August,  the  land  cultivated,  refurrowed  and  irrigated,  after 
which  a  new  growth  will  start  and  melons  of  good  quality  will  ripen 
in  October  and  November. 

A  large  list  of  varieties  are  grown,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned Kleckley  Sweet,  Florida  Favorite  and  Sweetheart. 

WHEAT  (See  under  Grain.) 


THE  WEEDS  OF  IMPERIAL  VALLEY. 

Weeds  have  been  introduced  into  the  valley  largely  through  the 
irrigation  water  and  by  importing  impure  seeds.  In  spite  of  the 
strictest  regulations  regarding  the  inspection  of  seed  and  the  cleaning 
of  ditch  banks,  these  sources  of  weed  infestation  cannot  be  entirely 
controlled,  at  least  until  the  land  is  more  intensively  cultivated.  It 
is  only  through  careful  co-operation  among  all  of  the  land  owners 
of  the  valley  that  the  work  of  exterminating  the  obnoxious  weeds  will 
be  at  all  satisfactory,  as  the  weeds  quickly  spread  from  the  badly 
infested  farms  to  the  neighboring  clean  land.  The  County  Horticul- 
tural Commission  has  declared  the  following  weeds  a  public  nuisance 
and  injurious  to  the  agricultural  and  horticultural  interests  of  the 
county:  Johnson  Grass,  Dodder,  Wild  Morning  Glory,  Cocklebur, 
Wild  Asparagus  or  Spring  Aster,  and  Wild  Sunflower. 

The  following  summary  gives  the  best  methods  of  eradicating  these 
and  other  pestiferous  weeds  found  in  the  valley : 

Johnson  Grass  (Sorghum  halepense)  should  be  cut  before  bloom- 
ing, the  earlier  the  better,  to  prevent  seeding  and  the  formation  of 
any  strong  new  root  stocks  which  would  form  the  main  root  stocks  for 
the  succeeding  year.  The  old  root  stock  dies  each  year  so  that  by 
carefully  keeping  the  grass  cut  down  or  eaten  off,  the  plants  can  be 
exterminated  in  two  or  three  years'  time.  Infrequent  cultivation 
spreads  the  root  stocks  and  causes  more  harm  than  good,  but  thorough 
and  constant  cultivation  to  keep  down  any  growth  that  may  appear 
will  prove  successful.  Close  pasturing  with  hogs  or  cattle  will  eventu- 
ally kill  out  this  grass. 

Wild  Morning  Glory  (Convolvulus  incanus),  sometimes  known  as 
bind  weed,  can  best  be  eradicated  by  hoeing  up  the  plants  and  then 
either  burning  or  drying  them  in  the  sun.     As  soon  as  new  growth 


BULLETIN  210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


243 


appears  is  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  possible.  Thorough  cultivation 
after  that  will  prove  beneficial,  but  cultivation  before  the  hand  hoeing 
is  apt  to  spread  the  vines  and  cause  a  wider  distribution  of  the  pest. 
Deep  plowing  helps  but  little. 

Pig  Weeds  (Amaranthus  sp.)  are  hard  to  eradicate  because  of  their 
rapid  growth  and  because  seeds  from  distant  sources  are  carried  onto 
the  fields  by  irrigation  water.  The  only  way  to  keep  them  down  is  by 
cutting  or  pulling  the  young  plants  before  they  bloom,  thus  preventing 
the  formation  and  spread  of  seed.  This  must  be  done  every  year, 
however,  because  the  land  is  apt  to  be  reseeded  through  the  irrigation 
water. 

Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon)  can  be  killed  out  by  thorough 
cultivation  and  summer  fallowing  where  the  land  is  not  subirrigated. 
Where  the  land  is  subirrigated  the  eradication  of  this  grass  is  ex- 
pensive and  very  tedious. 

Dodder  (Cuscuta  epithytum)   can  best  be  killed 'out  by  burning. 


Fig.  46. — Cocklebur  from  side  of 
road  which  germinated,  grew 
and  matured  three  seeds,  the 
soil  having  been  once  slightly 
wet  with  waste  water. 


Fig.  47. — Eunning  Malva. 


244 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


An  easy  way  is  to  pile  dry  hay  on  the  spot  and  set  it  on  fire.  This 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  dodder  appears,  as  it  spreads  rapidly. 

Cocklebur  (Xanthium  canadense)  must  be  prevented  from  seeding 
and  to  do  this  considerable  watchfulness  is  necessary,  as  the  plants 
grow  rapidly  and  produce  seed  when  very  young.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  fall  when  the  cockleburs  are  apt  to  come  up  and  go  to 
seed  unnoticed.  They  should  be  pulled  up  as  soon  as  seen  and  if 
seed  have  formed  they  should  be  burned.  Two  years  of  thorough 
work  is  often  needed,  as  the  seeds  are  long  lived.  Rotation  of  crops 
and  clean  culture  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  combating  the  cocklebur. 

Running  malva  (Sphaeralcea  augustifolia)  or  snuffle  weed,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  a  pernicious  weed  to  eradicate,  which  requires 
considerable  patience.  The  seeds  mature  quickly  and  continually  and 
constant  and  thorough  cultivation  is  necessary  to  prevent  reseeding. 
The  easier  way  is  to  cultivate  the  plants  out  while  still  young  before 
coming  into  bloom. 

Wild  asparagus  or  Spiny  aster  (Aster  spinosus)  spreads  both  by 


Fig.  48. — Wild  asparagus  or  spiny  aster. 


Bulletin  210.    imperial  valley  settlers'  crop  manual.  245 

seed  and  by  underground  root  stocks,  hence  the  method  of  fighting  it 
must  be  similar  to  that  recommended  for  Johnson  grass.  Plowing  a 
field  will  kill  some  of  the  plants,  but  to  exterminate  the  pest,  the  tops 
must  be  kept  down,  so  that  no  green  shows  above  ground  and  no  food 
can  be  stored  in  the  roots  to  sustain  life  for  further  growth.  The 
process  of  cutting  down  this  weed  as  often  as  it  appears  above  ground 
is  a  very  tedious  one,  but  if  conscientiously  followed  will  be  success- 
ful. The  easiest  and  cheapest  way,  perhaps,  is  to  plant  alfalfa  and 
cut  hay  two  years.  This  will  reduce  the  hand  work  to  the  wild  aspara- 
gus along  the  ditches  and  under  the  fences. 

Wild  Sunflower  (Helianthus  annus).  This  is  easier  to  fight  than 
any  of  the  other  weeds  mentioned,  as  it  is  more  easily  prevented  from 
going  to  seed  if  ordinary  care  is  used. 

Foxtail  (Hordeum  jobatum).  Rotation  of  crops  is  perhaps  the 
best  method  of  combating  the  foxtail.  There  is  no  other  successful  and 
economical  way  of  getting  rid  of  this  pest  when  once  established  in  an 
alfalfa  field.  By  cutting  the  first  crops  before  the  foxtail  ripens,  good 
feed  may  be  secured.  If  cut  after  ripening  the  awns  of  the  foxtail 
work  into  the  gums  of  stock  and  cause  much  sore  mouth. 

Star  thistle  (Centaurea  melitensis) .  Thorough  cultivation  and 
rotation  of  crops  will  kill  out  this  weed.  The  young  plants  should 
not  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed. 

Other  weeds  which  are  sometimes  troublesome  in  the  southwest 
and  which  should  be  guarded  against,  are : 

Pignut,  Caesalpina  falcaria  pringlei. 

Velvet  weed,  Gaura  parviflora. 

Knot  grass,  Paspalum  distichum. 

Switch  grass,  Festuca  fascicularis. 

Nut  grass,  Cyperus  escidentus. 

Smart-weed,  Polygonum  lapathifolium. 

Skeleton  weed,  Eriogonum  deflexum. 

Salt  weed,  Suaeda  torreyana. 

Tumble  weed,  Amaranthus  albus. 

Horehound,  Marrubium  vulgare. 

Devil-claws,  Martynia  fragrans. 

Horse  nettle,  Solanum  elaeagnifolium. 

Jimson  weed,  Datura  meteloides. 

Morning  glory,  Ipomea  Mexicana. 

Small  tumble  weed,  Krynitskia  crassisepala. 

Beggar's  lice,  Echinospermum  redowskii  occidentale. 


246  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Herbicides. — Thorough  cultivation,  short  rotations  and  prevention 
of  seeding  are  the  best  methods  of  fighting  weeds.  Still  in  some  cases 
chemicals  may  be  used  to  advantage,  especially  under  fences  and  in 
places  where  it  makes  no  difference  if  nothing  grows.  Some  of  the 
herbicides  not  only  kill  the  weeds,  but  poison  the  soil  to  such  an  extent 
that  nothing  will  grow.  This  would  make  no  difference  in  the  case 
of  fence  rows,  walks,  roadsides,  etc. 

Salt  (dry  or  in  concentrated  solution)  acts  the  same  as  other 
alkalis. 

Blue  vitriol  is  a  good  herbicide  but  is  too  costly  for  ordinary  use. 

Kerosene. — This  is  rather  weak  in  efficiency  and  sometimes 
dangerous. 

Carbolic  acid. — This  is  one  of  the  best  herbicides,  as  it  acts  quickly 
and  the  crude  acid  is  cheap. 

Sulfuric  acid. — Effective,  but  not  generally  recommended. 

Caustic  soda. — Used  for  deep  rooted  or  woody  plants. 

Arsenical  compounds. — These  are  lasting  and  very  effective.  (White 
arsenic,  1  pound,  washing  soda,  2  pounds;  water,  3  to  9  gallons). 

Distillate. — This  has  been  reported  as  being  very  effective,  and  as 
it  may  be  secured  cheaply,  it  may  prove  one  of  the  best. 


PLANTS  FOR  ORNAMENT  AND  COMFORT. 

Plants  for  Lawns. 

Lawns  are  unusually  desirable  in  Imperial  Valley  on  account  of 
the  dust  and  reflected  heat  from  bare  ground.  "We  are  somewhat 
limited  in  our  choice  of  plants,  however,  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
the  blue  grass  chiefly  used  in  the  east  does  very  poorly  and  requires 
more  skill  to  start  and  maintain  than  most  people  care  to  give.  A 
few  persons  have  succeeded  with  a  mixture  of  blue  grass  and  white 
clover,  but  such  cases  are  exceptions. 

Bermuda  grass  thrives  wonderfully  and  makes  a  very  good  lawn, 
but  it  is  so  pernicious  in  its  tendency  to  spread  and  appropriate  every 
inch  of  space  intended  for  flowers  and  other  plants,  and  it  is  so  feared 
by  farmers  that  it  has  but  few  friends  in  the  valley.  In  the  city  lots 
of  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Arizona,  under  similar  conditions,  Bermuda 
is  largely  used  for  summer  lawns.  In  the  fall  Australian  Rye  Grass 
(or  Italian  Rye  Grass),  an  annual,  is  sown  with  the  Bermuda  and 
furnishes  a  soft  velvety  lawn  all  winter,  dying  down  with  the  approach 
of  hot  weather  and  the  renewed  growth  of  the  Bermuda. 


BULLETIN   210.      IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


247 


A  new  lawn  plant  which  is  coming  into  quite  general  use  in 
Imperial  is  the  Lippia  no.di flora.  This  is  not  a  grass,  but  a  plant  allied 
to  Heliotrope  and  Verbena.  It  spreads  rapidly  by  runners,  yet  is  no1 
hard  to  eradicate  when  desired.  It  lies  flat  on  the  ground,  making  a 
good  carpet  and  is  covered  with  small  green  leaves  all  the  year  and 
with  small  white  or  pinkish  flowers  most  of  the  summer. 


Fig.  49. — A  Lippia  lawn. 


A  very  satisfactory  lawn  for  country  places  may  be  secured  by 
planting  small  pieces  of  the  runners  about  a  foot  apart  each  way  and 
watering  well  until  the  plants  have  grown  together  and  form  a  solid 
mat. 

SHADE  TEEES. 

The  following  deciduous  shade  trees  are  recommended  for  planting : 
Cottonwood, — some  persons  object  to  cottonwood  on  account  of  the 
disagreeable  cotton  which  is  shed,  but  if  male  or  staminate  trees,  which 
produce  no  cotton,  are  selected  from  which  to  take  the  cuttings,  this 
objection  will  be  obviated.  Arizona  Ash  is  a  desirable  and  satisfactory 
avenue  tree.  China  Umbrella  Tree  is  quick  growing,  hardy  and  pro- 
duces a  dense  shade.  It  is  liable  to  be  broken  to  pieces  by  the  winds 
unless  carefully  pruned  each  winter.  The  true  China  tree  produces 
little  shade  and  is  not  nearly  so  satisfactory  as  the  umbrella  variety 
of  the  China  Tree.  Mexican  Elder  is  a  small  tree  which  puts  out 
fresh  green  leaves  very  early  in  spring  and  is  covered  with  white 


248 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


blossoms  in  summer.  Honey  Locust  grows  well  and  is  useful  for 
variety  sake.  The  various  kinds  of  Mulberry  succeed  admirably, 
although  some  persons  object  to  the  litter  made  by  the  falling  fruit. 
Among  evergreen  trees  the  following  are  suggested :  Pepper  tree, — 
this  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  generally  satisfactory  ornamental 


Fig.  50. — Cottonwood  tree,  a  very  rapid  grower. 


evergreen  trees  available  for  Imperial  planting.  Several  kinds  of 
Eucalyptus  (see  under  Eucalypts).  Sterculia  diver  si  folia  or  Aus- 
tralian bottle  tree,  Monterey  Cypress,  Chinese  Arbor  Vitae,  Mission 
Olive,  Washington,  Canary  and  Date  Palms.  Other  trees,  such  as  the 
Carob  or  St.  John's  Bread,  Live  Oaks,  Pecans,  etc.,  are  being  experi- 
mented with  and  may  prove  valuable.  Bagote  trees  thrive  in  the 
region  and  are  beautiful  and  interesting,  although  they  furnish  very 
little  shade. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual. 


249 


SHRUBS. 

Shrubbery  is  very  useful  for  planting  at  the  sides  of  the  house 
and  for  banking  along  the  borders  of  the  front  lawn  as  a  boundary 
and  to  act  as  a  background  for  the  flowers.  Pomegranate,  Euonymus 
Japonica,  and  the  Japan  privet  Ligustrum  Japonicum,  are  especially 


Fig.  51. — Old-fashioned  China  tree,  the  kind  to  avoid. 


suitable  for  this  purpose.  Quick  growing  shrubs  are  also  useful  in 
screening  ugly  outbuildings  or  undesirable  views.  The  giant  reed 
Arundo  donax,  and  castor  bean  are  very  quick  growers,  and  both 
thrive  in  the  climate.  With  these  two  plants  available  and  so  easily 
grown,  there  is  really  no  excuse  for  such  things  as  the  cow  lot,  pig 
pen,  etc.,  being  in  view  from  the  dining  room  or  living  room  windows. 
The  oleander  in  many  varieties  makes  excellent  growth  and  blooms 


250 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Fig.  52. — The  Umbrella  variety  of  China  tree.     A  vigorous  grower  and 
dense  shade  tree,  but  short  lived  and  easily  broken  by  the  wind. 


Fig.  51 


-Four-year-old  pepper  trees.     Quite  satisfactory  for 
ornament  and  shade. 


Bulletin  210.     IMPERIAL  VALLEY  SETTLERS'  CROP  MANUAL. 


251 


profusely  in  Imperial  Valley.  About  the  only  objection  to  it  is  that 
it  is  poisonous  to  stock.  It  is  also  poisonous  when  eaten  by  children, 
but  this  rarely  happens,  as  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  exceedingly 
bitter.  Several  tamarisks  have  also  been  observed  to  grow  well,  espe- 
cially Tamarix  hispida  var.  aestivalis.  A  large  number  of  kinds  of 
Cactus  and  Yuccas  from  the  desert  are,  of  course,  available  to  those 
who  fancy  this  type  of  ornamentals.  The  Squaw  Bush,  Lycium  graci- 
lipes,  is  well  suited  to  the  country  and  makes  a  good  growth,  as  do 
also  several  of  the  salt  bushes.  Sweet  Myrtle,  Myrtis  communas,  grows 
very  well  and  is  valuable  either  as  a  hedge 'plant  or  as  a  lawn  specimen, 
where  it  bears  beautiful  white  flowers  and  attractive  dark  blue  ber- 
ries. The  Tuna,  Opuntia  tuna,  grows  well,  of  course,  and  may  be  used 
both  for  a  hedge  and  for  its  fruit. 


Fig.  54. — Shade  trees  and  vines  in  the  Imperial  Valley  often  constitute 
the  chief  difference  between  a  house  and  a  home. 


VINES. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  annual  vines  which  will  thrive  and 
cover  an  arbor  or  porch,  but  the  perennial  vines  are,  as  a  rule,  much 
more  desirable.  If  these  are  deciduous  they  will  not  only  keep  the 
sun  out  during  summer,  but  will  let  the  sun  in  during  winter. 

The  Virginia  creeper  is  one  of  the  best  known  climbers  in  the 
United  States  and  it  thrives  fairly  well  in  Imperial  Valley.     One  of 


252  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

its  valuable  features  is  its  brilliant  red  autumnal  coloration.  The  silk 
vine,  Periploca  graeca,  is  a  rapid  and  vigorous  grower  with  bright 
shining  green  leaves  and  is  fairly  resistant  to  alkali.  Various  grapes 
may  be  used  for  covering  arbors,  the  wild  grape  of  Arizona,  Vitis 
Arizonica,  being  one  of  the  most  drouth  resistant.  Hall's  Honeysuckle 
is  also  a  very  desirable  vine  which  is  almost  evergreen  and  is  attractive 
on  account  of  the  fragrance  of  its  flowers.  The  trumpet  creeper, 
Tecoma  radicans,  is  rather  a  diffuse  grower  and  is  adapted  as  an  orna- 
mental rather  than  as  a  sun  shield.  It  bears  large  red  flowers  all 
summer.  (Tecoma  grandiflora  also  has  attractive  flowers).  Other 
desirable  vines  are  Bignonia  tweediana,  Clematis  paniculata,  Parth- 
enocissus  tricuspidata  (the  Boston  Ivy),  and  the  Bougainvillea.  This 
latter  is  rather  tender  to  frost  and  needs  some  protection  on  frosty 
nights  when  grown  in  exposed  situations.  In  the  warmest  places  it 
may  be  possible  to  grow  the  beautiful  Solanum  wendlandii,  which 
bears  a  profusion  of  large  blue  flowers. 

The  most  desirable  vines  for  covering  an  arbor  and  making  a  sun 
screen  here  mentioned  are :  Silk  Vine,  Bignonia  tweediana,  and 
Arizona  wild  grape. 

EOSES. 

Many  roses  do  very  well  in  Imperial  Valley  and  the  total  number 
which  have  been  tested  is  large.  The  following  are  among  those  which 
have  been  reported  as  giving  satisfaction :  White  Kaiserine  August 
Victoria,  a  good  white  climber ;  Lamarque,  white  climber,  good ;  Crim- 
son Rambler,  red  climber,  very  good;  Etoile  de  France,  crimson,  very 
good ;  Gruss  an  Teplitz,  deep  red,  ever  bloomer,  very  good  j  Governor 
Wood,  red,  very  good  summer  bloomer ;  Black  Prince,  red,  very  good ; 
Papa  Gontier,  brilliant  carmine,  very  good ;  Baby  Rambler,  deep  pink, 
good;  Caroline  Testout,  Captain  Christy,  General  Arthur,  Geo.  Per- 
net,  pink,  good;  Safrano,  deep  fawn;  Madame  de  Watteville,  salmon 
white,  good ;  Perle  von  Godesburg,  deep  yellow,  good ;  Sunset,  Dorothy 
Perkins,  Catherine  Mermet,  Helen  Gould,  Marie  van  Houtte,  Golden 
Gate,  Bridesmaid,  Rainbow,  M.  P.  Wilder,  Mary  J.  Lang,  and  many 
others. 

The  Mannetti  stock  thrives  exceedingly  in  the  soil  of  Imperial  and 
most  roses  will  do  well  if  budded  upon  it.  It  frequently  happens, 
however,  that  the  great  vigor  of  the  Mannetti  causes  it  to  sucker  and 
if  the  suckers  are  not  continually  cut  out  they  will  soon  entirely  choke 
out  the  scion. 


Bulletin  210.     imperial  valley  settlers'  CROP  manual.  253 

Perennial  Flowers. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  plants  for  permanent  borders  for 
walks  and  for  low  hedges  is  Santolina  incana,  commonly  known  as 
Lavender  Cotton.  This  is  a  beautiful  plant  with  silvery  leaves  and 
brilliant  yellow  flowers.  It  seems  to  be  quite  resistant  to  alkali,  heat 
and  dryness.  Other  perennial  flowers  are  Chrysanthemums,  Iris  or 
blue  flag,  Canna,  and  Perriwinkle.     True  Lavender  and  Asparagus 


Fig.  55. — A  new  house  near  Calexieo,  where  a  splendid  start  has  been 
made  toward  an  attractive  home. 

are  also  useful  for  filling  in  for  mass  effects.  Globe  Artichoke  is  also 
very  useful  for  this  purpose.  So  little  has  been  done  along  floricul- 
tural  lines  in  the  Imperial  Valley  that  any  list  given  at  this  time  must 
necessarily  be  regarded  as  only  a  partial  one. 

Annual  Flowers. 

The  following  partial  list  of  annual  flowers  is  recommended :  Sweet 
Pea,  Corn  Flower,  Poppy,  Yellow  Oxalis,  Petunia,  Verbena,  Ten 
Week  Stocks,  Sweet  William,  Snapdragon,  Wall  Flower,  Wild  Mari- 
gold (Bailey a  multiradiata)  and  Gaillardia.  For  making  a  show  of 
color  in  spring  and  early  summer  the  following  four  can  hardly  be 
excelled.  Petunia,  Marigold  (Calendula  officinalis),  Ten  Week 
Stocks  and  Snapdragon  (Antirrhinum  majus).  The  seed  should  be 
planted  in  a  partly  shaded  bed  in  late  September  or  early  October  and 
the  little  plants  protected  and  watered  in  the  bed  all  winter.  Trans- 
plant in  late  January  to  permanent  location.  With  good  care  they 
will  come  into  bloom  about  April  first. 


155.9 


8 


